Copyright 1991 International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources/ United Nations Environment Programme/WWF- World Wide Fund For Nature. Reproduction of this publication for educational and other non- commercial purposes is authorized without prior permission from the copyright holders. Reproduction for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without the prior written permission of the copyright holders. Any redistribution of this work, in whole or in part, must contain this copyright notice. Caring for the Earth A Strategy for Sustainable Living Published in partnership by IUCN-The World Conservation Union UNEP-United Nations Environment Programme WWF-World Wide Fund For Nature Gland, Switzerland, October 1991 page i Sponsors CIDA - Canadian International Development Agency Canadian Wildlife Federation DANIDA - Danish International Development Assistance FINNIDA - Finnish International Development Agency International Centre for Ocean Development Ministere de l'Environnement du Quebec, Ministry of Environment of Quebec The Johnson Foundation Inc. Ministero degli Affari Esteri, Direzione Generale per la Cooperazione allo Sviluppo, Italy Netherlands Minister for Development Cooperation NORAD - Royal Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Norway SIDA - Swedish International Development Authority Collaborators Asian Development Bank FAO-Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations IIED-International Institute for Environment and Development ILO-International Labour Office ICHM-Istituto Superiore di Sanita OAS-Secretariat: Organization of American States United Nations Centre for Human Settlements - Habitat UNDP-United Nations Development Programme UNESCO-United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNFPA-United Nations Population Fund The World Bank WHO-World Health Organization WMO-World Meteorological Organization WRI-World Resources Institute Second World Conservation Strategy Project Project Director: David A. Munro Senior Consultant and Writer: Robert Prescott-Allen Production: Peter Hulm and Nikki Meith Secretary: Margrith Kemp Cover and graphics: Kurt Brunner/Art Center College of Design (Europe) Final text edited by David A. Munro and Martin W. Holdgate English ISBN 2-8317-0074-4; French ISBN 2-8317-0075-2; Spanish ISBN 2-8317-0076-0; Earthscan edition 1-85383-126-3 Citation: IUCN/UNEP/WWF. (1991). Caring for the Earth. A Strategy for Sustainable Living. Gland, Switzerland. PART III Implementation and Follow-up page 163 Part I set out the nine principles on which a sustainable society must be based, and the Chapters in Parts I and II elaborated them. Taken together, the two Parts send a clear message that changes in the behaviour of individual people, communities and nations are essential if humanity is to live in harmony within the world of nature. Caring for the Earth sets out broad lines of advance, but strategies do not implement themselves. Most important will be how people and communities respond: what they do to make the change to living sustainably, and how fast they move. In the single Chapter that forms Part III, guidelines are proposed to help the users adapt the Strategy to their own needs and capabilities. It suggests ways towards implementation. It also describes how the partner organizations propose to follow up the Strategy themselves, working with the community of users. A document like the present one is neither the start nor the end of a process. Already many documents have pointed the way towards sustainability. Already many actions have been taken. The world has advanced a great deal in its understanding of environmental needs and priorities since the nations of the world met at Stockholm in 1972 in the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment and since the World Conservation Strategy was published in 1980. The Preparatory Committee for the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, to be held in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992, is elaborating an agenda of action - "Agenda 21" - for the coming century. The present Strategy is intended to help us move towards that century with confidence, emphasizing issues that must be addressed if humanity's progress is to be assured. Part III begins with a check-list of 122 actions elaborated in the two preceding sections of this Strategy. It adds a further 10 actions, of which the last - on monitoring and evaluating the Strategy - is the key to the follow-up action the partners will be taking. Part III also sets out a series of targets: of achievable, concrete steps that could be taken by specified dates. The list of targets is not exhaustive, and the partners themselves expect to add to and refine it as monitoring and evaluation proceed. The targets are stated here as a first step - and a challenge to all who take seriously the need to move towards sustainability. page 164 17. Implementing the Strategy Caring for the Earth poses challenges. There are no easy solutions. The problems we face cannot be solved overnight by some new vision on the part of world leadership. Action by governments and strengthened international institutions is clearly a part of the solution; in fact, it is essential, but it is not enough. The attitudes and practices of individuals - the action on the ground - count just as much. And governments and community leaders will do their share only if they are both supported and pressed to action by individuals and citizens' groups. Caring for the Earth is addressed to the whole world community. The world leaders who will participate in the UN Conference on Environment and Development are an important audience, but so are non-governmental organizations and professional groups, religious leaders and educators, business people, farmers and fisherfolk - all those who find in its statements an echo of their own concerns and convictions. It is not necessary that they agree with every statement between these covers. It is not necessary that they find all the actions in the Strategy relevant to their circumstances. It is necessary that they take and follow up those actions which they believe to be right and timely, and that they do so with a sense of urgency. The world is running out of space and time. The organizations that joined in partnership to prepare this Strategy commit themselves to do their utmost to secure its implementation. They will help governments and NGOs to play their parts. They will plan and coordinate their efforts, adjusting their budgets and programmes to give priority to the vital tasks that must be undertaken if we are truly to care for the Earth. Agenda Chapters 2-16 list 122 actions which need to be taken if a sustainable society is to be established. There are 10 additional actions in this chapter. A check-list of all the actions begins on page 174. The establishment of targets for achievement is a means of both focussing action towards concrete ends and evaluating its results. This is a time-honoured and deliberate practice in business and one that many individuals also follow. Targets for achieving some of the results at which this Strategy is aimed are set out in Box 31, following the check-list of actions. Priority actions Individuals and groups should now: - study the check-lists of actions and targets, and determine which have the highest priority for them as individuals, as members of citizens' groups and local communities, and as citizens of their nations; page 165 Chapter 17. Implementing the Strategy - review what changes they should make at home and at work in their own approach to life and in the policies of the groups to which they belong; - promote the Strategy within their local groups, communities and nations; - begin to plan specific actions based on the Strategy; - work for reorientation of national and international policies and institutions to implement the Strategy. The partner organizations will: - assist as much as they can in implementation of the Strategy; - monitor and evaluate implementation of the Strategy; - review, update and amend the proposed targets through an interactive process with users of the Strategy; - publish annual reports on implementation. Study the Strategy and prepare for change The Strategy argues for fundamental changes in how people live. Not all the actions fit every person's circumstances. None of the actions can be implemented easily or instantly. Hence the first thing is for readers to take the Strategy seriously enough to read it carefully and critically. They can then work out what it means for each of them as an individual and as a member of one or several communities. --------------------------------------------------------------------- Action 17.1. Study the Strategy and consider its implications. --------------------------------------------------------------------- All readers of this Strategy should consider its message from an individual standpoint. They should begin with the nine principles for living sustainably, set out in Chapter l, and the ethic of sustainable living in Chapter 2. These provide benchmarks against which to assess their own codes of belief. Some people may want to challenge some of the assertions, and may find it helpful to contact local environment or development groups, and discuss their concerns with them. Groups concerned with conservation, development, and humanitarian aid should also study the message. They might give particular attention to working with the coalitions to promote the world ethic for sustainable living proposed in Chapter 2, and the measures that need to be taken to enhance the quality of life outlined in Chapter 3 and to change personal attitudes and practices as suggested in Chapter 6. They should also review the ability of their own local communities to care for their environments, using Chapter 7 as a guide, and evaluate the changes that may be needed. Finally, they should remind themselves of what is needed to care for the Earth and manage sectoral activities, as described in Chapters 4 and 5 and Chapters 10-16 (Part II). Governments, government agencies and local administrations should look hard at all the chapters, but especially Chapters 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9 and the sectoral surveys in Part II. They will find that many of the proposed actions have implications for their ways of doing things. Even if the prescriptions in the Strategy pose a difficult challenge, they should consider carefully the arguments for change. page 166 Chapter 17. Implementing the Strategy --------------------------------------------------------------------- Action 17.2. Evaluate the implications of the Strategy for the policies and approaches of citizens' groups, NGOs, local communities, governments and international bodies. --------------------------------------------------------------------- The first phase should be to identify and implement solutions that can be carried out quickly. This action follows immediately from Action 17.1, and involves: - every citizens' group reviewing its plans and priorities and adjusting them to take account of new insights; - local communities and local governments reviewing the priorities in their areas, and adjusting community development and conservation plans accordingly; - governments' reviewing the adequacy of their policies and administrative capabilities in the many sectors addressed in the Strategy, and their ability to undertake the many tasks proposed for them. National leaders could appoint groups of experts to examine the most important environmental problems and their underlying causes, and prescribe actions to deal with them. The focus would be on measures including investments that would make a significant difference and could be taken within two years. A second phase of policy review should consider how, in the longer term, to address the main environment and development problems in a comprehensive, cross-sectoral and integrated fashion. It should: - involve a wide range of people, in and out of government; - span all major sectoral units within government and government agencies, and reach through local government to grass-roots citizens' groups; - promote dialogue among government, industry and conservation and development NGOs; - lead to the reformulation of development plans, conservation strategies, laws, regulations, pollution prevention policies, and economic policies in accordance with the goal of sustainability; - specifically consider the application of principles such as the Precautionary Principle, the Polluter Pays Principle and the User Pays Principle, and techniques like Environmental Impact Assessment in national and local circumstances; - lead on to the preparation or review and revision of national strategies such as Environmental Action Plans and National Conservation Strategies, and the development of a national strategy for sustainability (see Action 17.7). Promote the Strategy A concerted effort is needed to inform and educate people about the need for and principles of living sustainably and about the priority actions contained in the Strategy. Governments could be in the lead, but they may need encouragement and support. Public opinion is a powerful force for change, especially in democracies protected by the rule of law. page 167 Chapter 17. Implementing the Strategy -------------------------------------------------------------------- Action 17.3 Promote the Strategy through broadly based national and international publicity campaigns. -------------------------------------------------------------------- The Strategy needs promotion by all sectors of the community, but there is a special role for non-governmental organizations and citizens' groups. They should: - mount broad campaigns to persuade people and groups to change their attitudes and practices (see Box 9, Chapter 6); - catalyze and support actions by individuals and communities; - persuade governments to take action; - work with governments, business and other sectors where they have begun action. -------------------------------------------------------------------- Action 17.4. Promote the Strategy within government. -------------------------------------------------------------------- National leaders - heads of government - have a key role in mobilizing action toward a sustainable society. Steps that they can take include: - convincing their inner circle of the importance of altering national policies to achieve sustainability, and of their determination to move in this direction; - adopting sustainability - and the ways of working towards it - as consistent themes in speeches, and stimulating the public and private media to take up these themes; - making the coordination of action for sustainability a responsibility of the national leader's office; - launching a national strategy for sustainability (see Action 17.7); - insisting that their states play a responsible part in the quest for global sustainability. Parliaments and national legislative assemblies can play a major part by: - taking up public debate on the principles of sustainability, and building consensus on the national and local actions that need to be taken; - establishing a national vision of the future that spans political parties, and takes a long-term view. This may require setting up mechanisms to mediate conflicts among interest groups; - reviewing and strengthening national legislation for sustainable resource management, environmental care, pollution prevention, etc. (see Chapter 8); - involving citizens' groups in hearings and policy formulation, and taking any necessary steps to protect their political freedom; - ensuring that national policies are extended by international actions which promote global sustainability (see Chapter 9). In countries with federal systems, the above paragraphs also apply to the leaders, governments and parliaments of the provinces, states or territories. Steps in implementing the Strategy Enough has been said to make it clear that the Strategy will fail if all it leads to is talk. There has been too much of this in recent years, with thunderstorms of rhetoric followed by droughts of inaction. The test of the Strategy is the actions to which it will give rise. page 168 Chapter 17. Implementing the Strategy ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Action 17.5. Provide communities with the opportunity to prepare local strategies for sustainability. ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Preparation of local strategies enables communities to express their views on conservation and development issues, defining their needs and aspirations, and formulating a plan for the development of their area to meet their social and economic needs sustainably (see also Chapter 7). Local strategies enable the communities involved to define and achieve the kind of development that is most appropriate for them. If approved by the responsible government, each such strategy could form the basis of land-use policies and a land-use plan for the area. Local strategies could usefully be undertaken as part of a national or subnational strategy, but if neither of these is available there is no reason why local strategies should not be done independently. The geographical scope of a local strategy should be defined by the community (or communities) undertaking it. A local strategy can provide: - a forum and process through which the community can reach consensus on the goals, scale and pace of development, including the preferred nature, size and structure of the future economy of the area; - a means by which the community can agree: (a) measures to conserve the environment and ensure that each sector's resource base is secure; (b) measures to promote each sector's development; (c) an integrated plan of action to ensure that the two sets of measures are in harmony, and will provide a balance among sectors and a future economy consistent with the needs and values of the community; - a mechanism for developing a constructive dialogue and reaching agreement with other affected communities and interests on the area's future. Guidance on local strategies is given in Annex 8. ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Action 17.6. Organize governmental agencies to implement the Strategy. ---------------------------------------------------------------------- The key implementing agencies in many nations are the sectoral and specialist ministries, departments, authorities and inspectorates. They will lead in many of the actions in this Strategy. They should: - consider how to integrate environment and development in their organization and procedures (see Chapter 8); - develop inter-sectoral links, and where necessary alter mandates and practices so that the government agencies respond to inter- sectoral issues (Action 8.1); - review programmes and projects already under consideration for sustainability, adjusting these where necessary; - ensure that the structure and policies of their foreign affairs and development assistance organizations enable them to participate effectively in the global alliance (see Chapter 9). page 169 Chapter 17. Implementing the Strategy -------------------------------------------------------------------- Action 17.7. Undertake national and subnational strategies for sustainability. -------------------------------------------------------------------- National Conservation Strategies (NCSs) were proposed by the World Conservation Strategy as a means for countries to integrate conservation and development and take a comprehensive, cross- sectoral approach to conservation and resource management. By identifying the country's most urgent environmental needs, they assist decision makers in determining priorities, allocating limited resources, and building the institutional capacity to handle complex environmental issues. NCSs are prepared by nationals of the countries concerned, usually by governments in collaboration with citizens' groups, universities and research institutions, the private sector, and a wide array of other interest groups. Environmental Action Plans (EAPs) are similar to NCSs, but are sponsored by the World Bank. EAPs are produced by teams or working groups consisting primarily of nationals from governmental agencies and citizens' groups. The Bank has provided technical assistance, funds for working materials and local and international consultants, and support for studies and national workshops. Every country that has done an NCS or an EAP should review its adequacy as a strategy for sustainability. Other countries should directly undertake a national strategy for sustainability. Subnational jurisdictions within federal countries should also undertake such strategies (see Action 8.2). In reviewing strategies and action plans, the following criteria should be borne in mind: - each strategy or plan is unique: each should reflect local conditions, local needs, and the circumstances under which the strategy was prepared; - conservation and development problems should be tackled in a comprehensive and integrated fashion; - strategies should include a fundamental reexamination of policies, laws and institutions; - the comprehensiveness of a strategy should enable countries to understand better how the problems they face relate to each other. Further guidance on national strategies is given in Annex 8. ------------------------------------------------------------------ Action 17.8. Build up the global alliance. ------------------------------------------------------------------ The global alliance outlined in Chapter 9 is crucial to the human future. Few, if any, nations have the resources and skills to achieve sustainability on their own - and those tempted to try could do so only by retreating into isolation. The global alliance is, in fact, so important that some of the relevant actions of Chapter 9 are consolidated here. Following the UN Conference on Environment and Development, governments should: - strengthen and streamline the United Nations machinery to ensure a co-ordinated approach to environmental issues, based on an agenda whose priorities are determined by the widest practicable process of dialogue (see Action 9.9); - build new machinery to ensure that dialogue at the national and international levels reflects the knowledge, skills and concerns of all sectors of society, including nongovernmental organizations, business, commerce, industry, indigenous peoples, and religious groups (see Action 9.8); page 170 Chapter 17. Implementing the Strategy - establish new international financial mechanisms that will support technical cooperation and promote the transfer and application of the best available technology in all parts of the world, and so create the best possible conditions for sustainable resource use and protection of the global environment; - review and adapt the world's trading system so that markets are more open to the produce of lower-income countries, and so that, taken in conjunction with the elimination or rescheduling of debt and the increase in development assistance, net resource flows are reversed and run from the higher-income to the lower-income countries (see Actions 9.5, 9.6 and 9.7); - strengthen the global machinery for monitoring and research, so that the policies of nations are increasingly based on a common body of reliable knowledge (see Action 8.10). -------------------------------------------------------------------- Action 17.9. Fund the transition to sustainability. -------------------------------------------------------------------- Many of the priority actions - such as the proposals for integrating conservation and development - require doing things differently and more efficiently, but will not require new money. Laws and economic incentives to force changes in technology and economic restructuring will generate new investment opportunities. Thus financing much of the change to a sustainable society can be generated by the process of change itself. Nonetheless, a number of priority actions will need new money: to assist lower-income countries to adopt resource-efficient and environment-friendly technologies; to double the supply of family planning services; improve education; provide basic health care and sanitation; rehabilitate degraded environments; conserve biological diversity; sustain agricultural productivity; expand reforestation; and increase energy efficiency and develop renewable sources of energy. The sums required are difficult to estimate but will certainly be large. One estimate is given in Annex 7. It calls for total expenditures of $77 billion/year in 1992, rising to $161 billion/year in 2001. The total for the decade would be $1,288 billion. Much of this expenditure will lead to savings, or will provide a sufficient return to justify the investment in conventional terms. For example, family planning services will reduce health costs, and increasing energy efficiency is more cost-effective than building a new power plant. The money needed for environmental investment in both upper- and lower-income countries could come from a combination of sources: - reordering budgetary priorities among sectors to favour social and environmental priorities, by cutting spending on inefficient parastatals and stopping investment in unsustainable mega-projects; - privatizing some government activities; - making development spending more efficient; - using savings realized from improved administrative and delivery mechanisms; - reducing military expenditure (see Action 3.6 and Box 4); - private sector investments; - royalties; - private, NGO, and corporate contributions; - taxes and charges (see Chapter 8); - multilateral and bilateral assistance programmes (see Chapter 9). Box 29 sets out some of these options in detail. page 171 Chapter 17. Implementing the Strategy --------------------------------------------------------------------- Box 29. Ways of financing new investment in environmental care Transfers from military budgets. Land degradation and soil erosion, deforestation, global warming, competition for water, human population growth, and movements of refugees pose major threats to national and regional security. Current world military expenditures of $900 billion per year do nothing to protect countries from these threats. Tackling them in peaceful ways would be a legitimate use of military budgets, which could cover the entire cost of this Strategy and still be huge. For example, if the world military budget were cut by amounts to meet the estimates given in Annex 7, military expenditure would still be $853 billion in 1991 (a reduction of 5%), and as high as $739 billion (a reduction of 18 %) at the end of the century. Private sector investment services could generate private investments in conservation. The service would be similar to that of an investment bank, gathering long-term capital, spreading risks, arranging access to technology, and improving incentives for investments in sustainable development of biological resources. Earthcare Bonds. These could be either redeemable or non- redeemable. Proceeds from their sale would be used to build up a capital fund for investment, the proceeds of which would be used to finance some of the actions described in the Strategy after providing modest returns to the bond holders. Aggressively marketed to individuals and organizations wishing to make an affordable contribution to conservation and human development, and managed by a reputable international organization, such a scheme could yield a significant and continuing flow of income. Royalties. Patents and plant breeder's rights compensate the final developers of a biological product, but do not compensate - and may penalize - the interim developers of the product or the conservers of its germplasm. Interim developers include farmers, and breeders of lines that contributed to the patented product; and conservers of germplasm include people who have spent money or forgone immediate gain to conserve gene pools that have contributed to the product. A surcharge on royalties from patented biological materials would be equitable and could be collected through existing mechanisms for royalty collection and distribution. A surcharge of 1% on current royalty payments would yield an estimated $5 million per year. This sum could be paid into the fund administered under the International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources, which is intended to support conservation of germplasm, and thereby to compensate farmers, if only partially and indirectly. Alternatively, it could contribute to the proposed biodiversity fund. Private, NGO, and corporate contributions. Private and non- governmental contributions to financing implementation of this Strategy should be sought, even though they will probably be relatively small. But there is a rationale for greater commercial sponsorship of conservation. Corporations in 10 major industries - beverages, chemicals, clothing, food and confectionery, paper and wood products, pharmaceuticals, rubber and plastics, soaps and cosmetics, textiles, tobacco - depend wholly or partly on plants and animals for their raw materials. A significant proportion of these plants and animals is wild. The corporations benefit collectively from conservation of flora and fauna, but do not pay for it. Hence it would be appropriate for them to contribute directly to the costs of establishing and managing protected areas and other measures to maintain the wild gene pools, species, and habitats that form the biological resource base of their industry. Lotteries and other fund raising schemes could raise substantial sums from individuals for some of the priority actions proposed in this Strategy. The schemes could include a tax on tickets at big international and national events, such as the Olympic Games and World Fairs and Expositions; telethons and other fund raisers; and an international lottery. --------------------------------------------------------------------- page 172 Chapter 17. Implementing the Strategy High-income countries can be expected to meet all of their environmental investment needs; and middle-income countries that are not highly indebted should be able to meet a substantial proportion of them. As the self-reliance of lower-income countries is increased (see Chapter 9), they should also be able to meet some of their environmental investment needs. In the meantime, low-income and highly indebted countries will need considerable assistance, particularly with the costs of measures from which the global society will gain long-term benefits, but which compete with the countries' immediate needs for investment in development. Following up the Strategy Monitoring and evaluation are often the weakest parts of strategies, action plans, and programmes. They are neglected, partly because they appear to divert resources from the "real work". In fact they are essential for effective action, since without them we do not know if we are dealing with the most important issues or whether the actions are effective. ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Action 17.10. Monitor and evaluate the Strategy and its targets. ---------------------------------------------------------------------- When facing uncertainty and change - as in a strategy for sustainability - it is vital to track the evolution of issues, to monitor actions to address them, and to find out which work, which do not, and why. Without monitoring and evaluation, we cannot learn from experience, since no body of experience is available from which to learn. For example, no provision was made for continuous monitoring and evaluation of the World Conservation Strategy. Consequently, it has not been possible to base this Strategy on a full analysis of the 10 years of its implementation. The partners recognize that the test of the Strategy's success is what happens after it is published. They will therefore monitor three levels of response: - Promotion. Activities of the partners, sponsors, collaborators, and others to promote the Strategy; - Adoption. Formal undertakings by governments, organizations, communities, and enterprises to implement the Strategy; - Implementation. Implementation of the priority actions, at international, national, and (where practicable) local levels. The list of targets for achieving a sustainable society on pp. 178-84 is tentative, in respect of both what it does and does not include, and the precise dimensions of each target. Some of those which are quantified strike the right balance between ambitiousness and practicality; others may aim too low or too high. Targets that have not been expressed quantitatively may need further refinement. For the resolution of very difficult issues - for example those related to the global economy, development cooperation and transfer of technology - there is clearly a need for further debate before realistic targets can be established. The monitoring and evaluation process will be conducted through a centre established by the partners. It will create a database to receive reports and answer enquiries from partner users of the Strategy. The partners intend to publish a periodic Implementation Report, which will include suggestions for new or revised targets and indicators of sustainability as well as data on progress towards those previously established. page 173 Implementinq the Strategy ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Box 30. Check-list of actions Chapter 1. Building a sustainable society Action 1.1. Develop new strategies for sustainable living, based on the nine principles Chapter 2. Respecting and caring for the community of life Action 2.1. Develop the world ethic for living sustainably. Action 2.2. Promote the world ethic for living sustainably at national level. Action 2.3. Implement the world ethic for living sustainably through action in all sectors of society. Action 2.4. Establish a world organization to monitor implementation of the world ethic for living sustainably and to prevent and combat serious breaches in its observation. Chapter 3. Improving the quality of human life Action 3.1. In lower-income countries, increase economic growth to advance human development. Action 3.2. In upper-income countries, adjust national development policies and strategies to ensure sustainability. Action 3.3. Provide the services that will promote a long and healthy life. Action 3.4. Provide universal primary education for all children, and reduce illiteracy. Action 3.5. Develop more meaningful indicators of quality of life and monitor the extent to which they are achieved. Action 3.6. Enhance security against natural disasters and social strife. Chapter 4. Conserving the Earth's vitality and diversity Action 4.1. Adopt a precautionary approach to pollution. Action 4.2. Cut emissions of sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons. Action 4.3. Reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Action 4.4. Prepare for climate change. Action 4.5. Adopt an integrated approach to land and water management, using the drainage basin as the unit of management. Action 4.6. Maintain as much as possible of each country's natural and modified ecosystems. Action 4.7. Take the pressure off natural and modified ecosystems by protecting the best farmland and managing it in ecologically sound ways. Action 4.8. Halt net deforestation, protect large areas of old-growth forest, and maintain a permanent estate of modified forest. Action 4.9. Complete and maintain a comprehensive system of protected areas. Action 4.10. Improve conservation of wild plants and animals. Action 4.11. Improve knowledge and understanding of species and ecosystems. Action 4.12. Use a combination of in situ and ex situ conservation to maintain species and genetic resources. Action 4.13. Harvest wild resources sustainably. Action 4.14. Support management of wild renewable resources by local communities; and increase incentives to conserve biological diversity. Chapter 5. Keeping within the Earth's carrying capacity Action 5.1. Increase awareness about the need to stabilize resource consumption and population. Action 5.2. Integrate resource consumption and population issues in national development policies and planning. Action 5.3. Develop, test and adopt resource-efficient methods and technologies. Action 5.4. Tax energy and other resources in high-consumption countries. Action 5.5. Encourage "green consumer" movements. Action 5.6. Improve maternal and child health care. Action 5.7. Double family planning services. Chapter 6. Changing personal attitudes and practices Action 6.1. Ensure that national strategies for sustainability include action to motivate, educate and equip individuals to lead sustainable lives. continued . . . ----------------------------------------------------------------- page 174 Implementing the Strategy ----------------------------------------------------------------------- Action 6.2. Review the status of environmental education and make it an integral part of formal education at all levels. Action 6.3. Determine the training needs for a sustainable society and plan to meet them. Chapter 7. Enabling communities to care for their own environments Action 7.1. Provide communities and individuals with secure access to resources and an equitable share in managing them. Action 7.2. Improve exchange of information, skills, and technologies. Action 7.3. Enhance participation in conservation and development. Action 7.4. Develop more effective local governments. Action 7.5. Care for the local environment in every community. Action 7.6. Provide financial and technical support to community environmental action. Chapter 8. Providing a national framework for integrating development and conservation Action 8.1. Adopt an integrated approach to environmental policy, with sustainability as the overall goal. Action 8.2. Develop strategies for sustainability, and implement them directly and through regional and local planning. Action 8.3. Subject proposed development projects, programmes and policies to environmental impact assessment and to economic appraisal. Action 8.4. Establish a commitment to the principles of a sustainable society in constitutional or other fundamental statements of national policy. Action 8.5. Establish a comprehensive system of environmental law and provide for its implementation and enforcement. Action 8.6. Review the adequacy of legal and administrative controls, and of implementation and enforcement mechanisms, recognizing the legitimacy of local approaches. Action 8.7. Ensure that national policies, development plans, budgets and decisions on investments take full account of their effects on the environment. Action 8.8. Use economic policies to achieve sustainability. Action 8.9. Provide economic incentives for conservation and sustainable use. Action 8.10. Strengthen the knowledge base, and make information on environmental matters more accessible. Chapter 9. Creating a global alliance Action 9.1. Strengthen existing international agreements to conserve life-support systems and biological diversity. Action 9.2. Conclude new international agreements to help achieve global sustainability. Action 9.3. Develop a comprehensive and integrated conservation regime for Antarctica and the Southern Ocean. Action 9.4. Prepare and adopt a Universal Declaration and Covenant on Sustainability. Action 9.5. Write off the official debt of low-income countries, and retire enough of their commercial debt to restore economic progress. Action 9.6. Increase the capacity of lower-income countries to help themselves. Action 9.7. Increase development assistance and devote it to helping countries develop sustainable societies and economies. Action 9.8. Recognize the value of global and national non- governmental action, and strengthen it. Action 9.9. Strengthen the United Nations system as an effective force for global sustainability. Chapter 10. Energy Action 10.1. Develop explicit national energy strategies. Action 10.2. Reduce the use of fossil fuels, wastage in energy distribution, and pollution from commercial energy generation. Action 10.3. Develop renewable and other non-fossil fuel energy sources. Action 10.4. Use energy more efficiently in the home, industry, business premises and transport. Action 10.5. Conduct publicity campaigns to promote energy conservation and the sale of energy efficient products. continued . . . ----------------------------------------------------------------------- page 175 Chapter 11. Business, industry and commerce ----------------------------------------------------------------------- Action 11.1 Promote sustainability through dialogue between industry, government, and the environmental movement. Action 11.2. Adopt high environmental performance standards backed up by economic incentives. Action 11.3. Commit each business to sustainability and environmental excellence. Action 11.4. Identify hazardous industries, and locate and operate them with stringent safeguards. Action 11.5. Develop effective national and international systems for waste management. Action 11.6 Ensure that all industries that are based on the use of natural resources use them economically. Chapter 12. Human settlements Action 12.1. Adopt and implement an ecological approach to human settlements planning. Action 12.2. Develop more effective and representative local governments, committed to caring for their environments. Action 12.3. Develop an efficient and sustainable urban transport policy. Action 12.4. Make the city clean, green and efficient. Chapter 13. Farm and range lands Action 13.1. Undertake a national strategy for sustainability. Action 13.2. Protect the best farm land for agriculture. Action 13.3. Promote effective soil and water conservation through proper land husbandry. Action 13.4. Reduce the impact of agriculture on marginal lands already in production. Action 13.5. Encourage the adoption of integrated crop and livestock farming systems, and raise the efficiency of fertilizer use. Action 13.6. Increase the productivity and sustainability of rainfed farming. Action 13.7. Promote integrated pest management. Action 13.8. Control the use of fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides through regulations and incentives. Action 13.9. Promote international action to conserve genetic resources. Action 13.10. Expand ex situ efforts to conserve genetic resources. Action 13.11. Provide for in situ conservation of wild genetic resources (also see Chapter 4). Action 13.12. Attempt to increase non-farm employment for small farmers and the landless. Action 13.13. Switch from price supports to conservation supports. Action 13.14. Promote primary environmental care by farmers. Chapter 14. Forest lands Action 14.1. Establish a permanent estate of natural and modified forest in every nation and manage it to meet the needs of all sectors of society. Action 14.2. Establish a comprehensive system of protected natural forests. Action 14.3. Establish and maintain an adequate permanent estate of modified forest. Action 14.4. Increase the area of planted forest. Action 14.5. Increase national capacity to manage forests sustainably. Action 14.6. Strengthen community management of forests. Action 14.7. Expand efforts to conserve forest genetic resources. Action 14.8. Create a market for forest products from sustainably managed sources and use wood more efficiently. Action 14.9. Set stumpage prices to reflect the timber's full value; charge licence fees that discourage exploitation of stands of marginal commercial value; and auction concessions competitively. Action 14.10. Increase the capacities of lower-income countries to manage forests sustainably; and improve international cooperation in forest conservation and sustainable development. Chapter 15 Fresh waters Action 15.1. Improve the information base for sustainable water management. Action 15.2. Undertake awareness campaigns and education programmes on sustainable use of water. continued . . . ----------------------------------------------------------------------- page 176 Implementing the Strategy -------------------------------------------------------------------- Action 15.3. Provide training in the management of human uses of, and impacts on, the water cycle. Action 15.4. Manage water and demand to ensure efficient and equitable allocation of water among competing uses. Action 15.5. Give greater emphasis to the drainage basin as the unit of water management (see also Action 4.5). Action 15.6. Integrate the development of water resources with conservation of ecosystems that play a key role in the water cycle. Action 15.7. Establish a cross-sectoral mechanism for integrated water management. Action 15.8. Establish procedures to act rapidly in response to natural and human-caused hazards. Action 15.9. Give local communities greater control over the management of aquatic resources and' strengthen their capacity to use them. Action 15.10. Strengthen mechanisms for more effective international cooperation to share information and experience on how to use water and aquatic ecosystems sustainably. Action 15.11. Identify and protect aquatic species that are rare or threatened. Chapter 16. Oceans and coastal areas Action 16.1. Develop a national policy on the coastal zone and ocean. Action 16.2. Establish a mechanism to coordinate the planning and allocation of uses of the coastal zone . Action 16.3. Allocate marine resource user rights more equitably among small-scale, large-scale and sport fisheries, and giving more weight to the interests of local communities and organizations. Action 16.4. Use an ecosystem approach for management of marine resources. Action 16.5. Conduct information campaigns to raise the profile of coastal and marine issues; and include a strong marine component in environmental education in all countries. Action 16.6. Promote marine protected areas. Action 16.7. Conserve key and threatened marine species and gene pools. Action 16.8. Place high priority on preventing marine pollution from land-based sources. Action 16.9. Adopt procedures for effective prevention of pollution from ships and offshore installations, and for rapid response to emergencies such as oil spills. Action 16.10. Ratify or accede to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and other international legal instruments and develop an effective regime for sustainable use of open-ocean resources. Action 16.11. Expand and strengthen international cooperation, both regionally and among funding agencies and intergovernmental organizations. Action 16.12. Promote inter-disciplinary research and exchange of information on marine ecosystems. Chapter 17. Implementing the Strategy Action 17.1. Study the Strategy and consider its implications. Action 17.2. Evaluate the implications of the Strategy for the policies and approaches of citizens' groups, NGOs, local communities, governments and international bodies. Action 17.3. Promote the Strategy through broadly based national and international publicity campaigns. Action 17.4. Promote the Strategy within government. Action 17.5. Provide communities with the opportunity to prepare local strategies for sustainability. Action 17.6. Organize governmental agencies to implement the Strategy. Action 17.7. Undertake national and subnational strategies for sustainability. Action 17.8. Build up the global alliance. Action 17.9. Fund the transition to sustainability. Action 17.10. Monitor and evaluate the Strategy and its targets. -------------------------------------------------------------------- page 177 Chapter 17. Implementing the Strategy -------------------------------------------------------------------- Box 31. Targets Chapter 2. Respecting and caring for the community of life By 1993: Establishment of a network to link national coalitions for the world ethic for living sustainably (Action 2.1). Establishment of the international organization to prevent and combat serious breaches of the world ethic (Action 2.4). By 1995: Establishment of national coalitions in 50 countries (Action 2.1). Adoption by 50 Governments of national statements upholding the Covenant and the world ethic (Action 2.2). Adoption by religious leaders, educators, economists, scientists, technologists and policy makers, through their worldwide professional organizations, of statements upholding the world ethic, and of practical guidelines for its implementation within their professional context (Action 2.3). By 2000: Establishment of national coalitions in 100 countries. Continuance of the other actions noted above (Actions 2.1. 2.2, 2.3, 2.4). Chapter 3. Improving the quality of human life By 2000: A 2-3 % annual increase in average per capita earnings in lower- income countries (Action 3.1). Immunization of all children against the main childhood diseases (Action 3.3). Reduction of childhood mortality to at least half that of 1990 or to 10 per 1000 babies born alive, whichever is lower (Action 3.3). Elimination of severe malnutrition and 50% reduction in moderate malnutrition (Action 3.3). Provision of universal access to safe water and 80% access to sanitation {Action 3.3). Provision of universal primary education for children a halving of 1990 school dropout rates, and a halving of adult illiteracy with female illiteracy no higher than male illiteracy (Action 3.4). Surveys in all countries to define areas vulnerable to natural disaster, adjustment of land use establishment and development policies, and establishment of early warning systems, shelters and disaster relief plans (Action 3.6). A 20% reduction in annual global military and naval expenditure, and redirection of effort to social and environmental priorities (Action 3.6). Formulation of a Quality of Life index that provides an effective measure of development (Action 3.5). Chapter 4. Conserving the Earth's vitality and diversity By 2000: Adoption by all governments of the precautionary approach to pollution prevention (Action 4.1). Reduction of sulphur dioxide emissions by at least 90% (based on 1980 levels) and nitrogen oxide emissions by 75% (based on 1985 levels) commitment to reducing hydrocarbon and further reductions of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides emissions and progress towards regulatory systems that ensure no ecosystem receives more than its critical load in all higher-income countries (Action 4.2). continued . . . -------------------------------------------------------------------- page 178 Chapter 17. Implementing the Strategy -------------------------------------------------------------------- Manufacture and use of chlorofluorocarbons should have ceased in higher-income countries, with a rapid decline in lower-income countries (Action 4.3). A plan for coping with climate change drawn up in all countries (Action 4.4). Net global forest depletion should have ceased (Action 4.8). Strategies for the conservation of national biological diversity established in all countries. Targets for the proportion of their territory that they will maintain as natural and as modified ecosystems, together with plans for the target's achievement, should be adopted by all countries (Action 4.6). Biodiversity conservation regions where economic activities and biodiversity conservation can be combined, should be designated by at least 50 countries. Every country should have a system of protected areas covering 10% or more of each of its main ecological regions (Action 4.9). All countries should accept responsibility for species found only in their territory, set targets for reducing the percentage of native species threatened with extinction, and adopt strategies for the conservation of their species diversity (Action 4.10). Guidelines for sustainable wildlife use should be adopted in all countries (Action 4.10). By 2005: All high-energy and medium-high energy countries should have reduced their carbon dioxide emissions by at least 20% (from 1990 levels), and adopted a further target of 70% reduction before 2030 (Action 4.3). Integrated systems for land and water management should be operative in at least 50 countries (Action 4.5). By 2010: CFCs should neither be made nor used anywhere in the world (Action 4.3). Plans to limit other greenhouse gas emissions should be implemented in all upper-income countries (Action 4.3). A comprehensive world ex situ and in situ genetic conservation system should be in operation (Action 4.12). All depleted fisheries should be recovering and no fishery should be overexploited (Actions 4.13, 16.7). Marine pollution should have been reduced so that no fishery poses a public health hazard because of contamination with pathogens or chemicals (Action 16.8). A global system of coastal and marine protected areas should be established (Action 16.6). Chapter 5. Keeping within the Earth's carrying capacity By 2000: Countries with per capita energy consumption above 80 gigajoules should reduce per capita energy consumption toward that level. The rate of reduction should be 1 % per year until 2000, and 2% per year thereafter (Action 5.4). Countries with per capita energy consumption of around 80 gigajoules should stabilize consumption at that level or below. All high-consumption countries should set targets and a timetable for reducing consumption of raw materials per person (Action 5.4). Countries with total fertility rates (TFRs) of 2.2-3.1 should reduce them to 2.1. Countries with TFRs of 2.1 or less should maintain or reduce them (and in any case not increase them above 2.1) . At least double and preferably triple annual expenditures on family planning (Action 5.7). By 2010: Countries with TFRs of 4.2 and above should seek to halve them (Action 5.7). Countries with TFRs of 3.2-4.1 should reduce them to 2.1 continued . . . -------------------------------------------------------------------- page 179 Chapter 17. Implementing the Strategy -------------------------------------------------------------------- Chapter 6. Changing personal attitudes and practices By 1995: Clearinghouse for information on environmental education established (Action 6.2). By 2000: National plans to promote sustainable living adopted in at least 50 countries (Action 6.1). Support for environmental education and training doubled (from 1990) by development assistance agencies (Action 6.2). By 2005: Incorporation of environmental education in school curricula in all countries (Action 6.2). By 2010: Support for environmental education and training quadrupled (from 1990) by development assistance agencies (Action 6.2). National plans to promote sustainable living adopted in all countries (Action 6.1). Chapter 7. Enabling communities to care for their own environments By 1995: Secure commitments by development assistance agencies to support community action plans and programmes (Action 7.6). By 2000: Review in all countries, especially in conjunction with national strategies for sustainability, the ability of communities to care for their own environments. Handbooks published drawing on the results, to help communities follow successful examples (Action 7.5). Chapter 8. Providing a national framework for integrating development and conservation By 2000: Systems of national environmental law backed by effective enforcement machinery, completed in all countries (Actions 8.4 8.5). Reviews of economic and administrative policy completed in all upper-income countries, with adjustments where necessary (Actions 8.6, 8.7, 8.8, 8.9). Integrated global system, including the Environmental Early Warning Mechanism, created to monitor a set of agreed indicators of human development, human freedom, environmental quality and ecological sustainability (Action 8.10). System of sustainability reporting established in all countries (Action 8.10). Adoption by all countries of a national strategy for sustainability that is guided by information on the quality of human life and the environment and has the enhancement of both as its chief goal (Action 8.2). By 2005: Introduction of effective EIA procedures in all countries (Action 8.3). By 2010: Extension of the economic and administrative review process to all lower-income countries (Actions 8.6. 8.7. 8.8. 8.9). Chapter 9. Creating a global alliance By 1995: Adoption and implementation of a comprehensive conservation regime for Antarctica (Action 9.3). continued -------------------------------------------------------------------- page 180 Chapter 17. Implementing the Strategy -------------------------------------------------------------------- By 2000: Completion and adoption by at least 50% of all countries, of the Universal Declaration and Covenant on Sustainability (Action 9.4). Adherence to CITES, the World Heritage Convention, the Ramsar Convention, the Bonn Convention and the Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources by 75% of nations (Action 9.1). Completion, adoption and implementation of the Conventions on the conservation of biological diversity and on global climate by 50% of nations (Action 9.2). Entry into force of UNCLOS (Action 9.2). Effective integration of action on environmental issues within the UN system (Action 9.9). Official debt of low-income countries eliminated, and their commercial debt reduced by 60% (Action 9.5). Substantial enhancement of terms of trade for lower-income countries in world markets (Action 9.6). Doubling of development assistance over the 1990 levels, effectively deployed to promote sustainability (Action 9.7). Publication of an annual Statement on the Environment by the UN agencies, in partnership with other appropriate international organizations (Action 9.9). By 2010: Universal Declaration and Covenant and adherence to the major conservation Conventions adopted by 90% of all nations. Conventions on the conservation of biological diversity and on climate change adopted by 75% of nations. Chapter 10. Energy By 2000: National energy strategies that provide for achievement of targets for energy consumption per head as set out in Action 5.4 prepared by all countries. All countries should be publishing annual reports on the implementation of national energy strategies and on specific action taken to promote efficiency in the use of fossil fuels, develop alternative sources, use energy more efficiently in the home, at work and in transport, and share their knowledge in these fields with other countries (Actions 10. 1, 10.4). All States with nuclear power stations should have ratified the international Conventions on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident and on Assistance in the case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency (Action 10.3). Chapter 11. Business, industry and commerce By 2000: Collaborative policy forums that bring government, industry and environmental experts together to discuss the role of industry in establishing a sustainable society established in all countries (Actions 8.1, 11.1). The Precautionary, Polluter Pays and User Pays Principles adopted in all countries, which will have set standards based on best available technology (see p. 97). Corporate environmental policies published by at least 75% of major and multinational companies (Action 11.3). Basle Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal ratified by all countries (Action 11.5). Chapter 12. Human settlements By 1995: National strategies for shelter, incorporating an ecological approach to human settlements planning prepared by 50% of countries (Action 12.1). continued -------------------------------------------------------------------- page 181 Chapter 17. Implementing the Strategy -------------------------------------------------------------------- At least 50% of cities of over one million population in high-income countries and 25% of cities of that size in low-income countries will have implemented policies that will have led to measurably swifter, safer and more efficient transport systems and to a 25% reduction in ambient air pollution (Action 12.3). Multilateral and bilateral development assistance agencies will have begun coordinated programmes aimed at accelerating the provision of water and sanitation services in the countries with the lowest present level of services (Actions 3.3, 12.1 and 12.4). By 2000: National strategies for shelter, incorporating an ecological approach to human settlements planning prepared by all countries (Action 12.1). All cities of over one million inhabitants in high-income countries and 50% of cities of that size in low-income countries will have implemented policies that will have led to measurably swifter, safer and more efficient transport systems and to a 50% reduction in ambient air pollution (Action 12.3). Ready access to safe water in all countries and to sanitation services in 80% of countries (Actions 3.3, 12.1 and 12.4). Local governments will be fully representative of the communities that they serve and empowered by senior governments to supply needed community services in at least 75% of countries (Actions 7.1, 7.4 and 12.2). By 2010: All cities in high-income countries and all cities over one million inhabitants in low-income countries will have implemented policies that produced measurably swifter, safer and more efficient transport systems and a 50% reduction in ambient air pollution (Action 12.3) . Ready access to safe water and sanitation in all countries. Local governments will be fully representative of the communities that they serve and empowered by senior governments to supply needed community services in all countries (Actions 7.1. 7.4 and 12.2). Chapter 13. Farm and range lands By 1995: All countries that need to adjust their capacity for food production should have begun to prepare national strategies for sustainability and regional land-use plans in agriculturally significant areas (Actions 8.2, 13.1 and 17.7). All high-income countries should have begun programmes to promote and provide information about good land-husbandry practices and integrated pest management (IPM), including minimizing the use of fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides (Actions 13.3, 13.7 and 13.8). At least 40% of countries will have national plant genetic resource programmes and will have prepared up-to-date annotated lists of livestock breeds (Action 13.10). By 2000: All countries that need to adjust their capacity for food production will have begun to implement national strategies for sustainability and will be using regional and land-use plans as a tool for land-use adjustment (Actions 8.2, 13.1 and 17.7). In high-income countries, good land-husbandry practices and IPM will be applied on 80% of agricultural land; the use of fertilizers, insecticides and herbicides will have declined by 25% per unit of production (from 1990 levels). In low-income countries, programmes to promote and provide information about good land-husbandry practices and IPM will have begun. continued. . . -------------------------------------------------------------------- page 182 Chapter 17. Implementing the Strategy -------------------------------------------------------------------- All countries will have adopted strategies for the conservation of their biological diversity (including cultivars and domesticates) and extended it comprehensive protection. Payment of subsidies for the production of surpluses beyond those required for a food security stockpile will have ceased. By 2010: In all countries food production will have been adjusted to contribute substantially to the aggregate needed to meet human needs. In high-income countries good land-husbandry practices and IPM will be applied on all agricultural land; the use of fertilizers and pesticides will have declined by 50% per unit of production (from 1990 levels). In low-income countries, good land-husbandry practices and IPM will be applied on 80% of agricultural land. The use of fertilizers and pesticides will have declined by 30% per unit of production (from 1990 levels). A comprehensive world ex situ and in situ genetic conservation system will be in operation. Chapter 14. Forest lands By 2000: A system of sustainability criteria for timber production established and the international timber trade based entirely on systems of forest management which sustain all forest values (Actions 14.1, 14.10). A well-managed and securely funded network of protected areas established throughout the world (boreal, temperate, and tropical) to protect substantial samples (in general, not less than 10%) of all types of old-growth forest (Action 14.2). A state of no net deforestation achieved while moving towards realistic targets for expanding the global forest estate. Cross sectoral policies adopted by at least 50 countries to maintain all forest values. Chapter 15. Fresh waters By 1995: All countries that experience water scarcity will have begun to prepare a water management strategy, giving particular attention to managing demand and increasing the efficiency of water use (Actions 15.4 and 15.7). All high-income countries will have established cross-sectoral mechanisms for integrated water-management and enabled the formation of management units based on drainage basins and the application of an ecological approach (Actions 15.5, 15.6 and 15.7). Negotiations will have begun on agreements for the management of major transboundary waters not now covered by such agreements (Action 15.10). By 2000: All countries that experience water scarcity will have increased the efficiency of water use by 20% from 1990 (Actions 15.4 and 15.7). At least 50% of low-income countries will have established cross- sectoral mechanisms for integrated water management based on drainage basins and the application of an ecological approach (Actions 15.5, 15.6 and 15.7). New agreements for the management of four major transboundary waters will have been concluded (Action 15.10). By 2010: All countries that experience water scarcity will have increased the efficiency of water use by 30% from 1990 (Actions 15.4 and 15.7). At least 80% of low-income countries will have established cross- sectoral mechanisms based on drainage basins and the application of an ecological approach (Actions 15.5, 15.6 and 15.7). (continued). . . -------------------------------------------------------------------- page 183 Chapter 17. Implementing the Strategy -------------------------------------------------------------------- New agreements for the management of an additional five major transboundary waters Chapter 16. Oceans and coastal areas By 2000: All depleted fisheries should be recovering and no fishery should be overexploited (Action 4.13, 16.7). By 2010: No fishery should pose a risk to public health because of contamination with pathogens or chemical pollutants (Action 16.8). A global system of coastal and marine protected areas should be established (Action 16.6). -------------------------------------------------------------------- page 184 Annexes page 185 Annex 1. Net primary production pre-empted or destroyed by human activities -------------------------------------------------------------------- [Annex 1 figure] Net Primary Production (NPP) is the amount of energy left after subtracting the respiration of primary producers (mostly plants) from the total amount of energy (mostly solar) that is fixed biologically. NPP is the total food resource on Earth, providing the basis for maintenance, growth, and reproduction of all consumers [animals] and decomposers [fungi] . All data are in petagrams (Pg) of organic matter a year (1 Pg = 10 15 grams or 10 9 tonnes). continued . . . -------------------------------------------------------------------- page 186 Annex 1. Net primary production pre-empted or destroyed by human activities Pre-empted = used directly by people or used in human-dominated ecosystems by communities of organisms different from those in corresponding natural ecosystems. Destroyed = potential NPP lost as a result of human activities. It is estimated that 58.1 Pg (or 39%) of terrestrial NPP and 2.2 of aquatic NPP is preempted or destroyed by people. Figure 1.1 breaks down the figure for terrestrial NPP by ecosystem condition and steps in the conversion from one condition to another. Note, however, that the source of these estimates (Vitousek et a/. 1986) does not distinguish natural and modified systems, so application of the data to this classification is not exact. The classification is explained Fig 1, p. 34. 27.0 Pg of NPP pre-empted or destroyed through conversion of ecosystems from one condition to another: Natural to modified (2.4 Pg/year) Loss of productivity due to conversion of forest to pasture (1.4 Pg/year}. Biomass killed or consumed by human-caused fires on natural grazing land (1.0 Pg/year) . Natural or modified to cultivated (17.5 Pg/year) Natural or modified forest biomass pre-empted or destroyed by land clearing and shifting cultivation (8.5 Pg/year). Reduction of productivity due to conversion of natural or modified systems to agriculture (9.0 Pg/year). Cultivated to built (2.6 Pg/year) Loss of productivity due to conversion of land to built systems (2.6 Pg/year). Degradation of arid lands (reduction in productivity by at least 25%) (4.5 Pg/year). 31.1 Pg of NPP pre-empted by human activities in ecosystems that have already been converted: Modified systems (14.1 Pg/year) Forest lands: timber harvests for wood, pulp or fuel, excluding harvests from plantations (2.2 Pg/year) + forest biomass destroyed by timber harvesting but not used (1.3 Pg/year). Grazing land: NPP of derived grazing land (land converted from forest to pasture), including consumption by livestock 19.8 Pg/year) + energy consumed by livestock on "natural" grazing land (0.8 Pg/year). "Natural" grazing land is here assumed to be modified, not natural as defined by this classification. Cultivated and built systems (17.0 Pg/year) The NPP of cultivated systems (16.6 Pg/year) and built systems (home gardens urban parks, golf courses, etc.) (0.4 Pg/year) is regarded as entirely pre-empted by people. Data source: Vitousek, P.M., P.R.Ehrlich, A.H.Ehrlich, & P.A.Matson. 1986. Human appropriation of the products of photosynthesis. BioScience 36 (6): 368-373. -------------------------------------------------------------------- page 187 Annex 2. Classification of 160 countries by income Key Low-income = real GDP per capita less than PPP$1,000* Middle-income = real GDP per capita PPP$1,000 to $9,999 Lower-middle-income = real GDP per capita PPP$1,000 to $5,499 Upper-middle-income = real GDP per capita PPP$5,500 to $9,999 High-income = real GDP per capita PPP$10,000 or more Lower-income = low-income + lower-middle-income Upper-income = upper-middle-income + high-income Numbers = real GDP per capita (1985-88) in PPP$ rounded to the nearest $100 ($50 rounded down) * PPP$ = purchasing power parities expressed in international dollars. Usual expressions of GNP and GDP convert national currency figures to US dollars using official exchange rates, which does not take account of the relative domestic purchasing powers of currencies. The UN International Comparison Project (ICP) has developed measures of real GDP on an internationally comparable scale using purchasing power partities (PPP) instead of exchange rates as conversion factors, and expressed in international dollars. Data source United Nations Development Programme. 1991. Human development report 1991. Oxford University Press, New York & Oxford. LOWER-INCOME LOW-INCOME Afghanistan 700 Angola 800 Bangladesh 700 Bhutan 700 Burkina Faso 600 Burundi 500 Central African R 800 Chad 500 Comoros 800 Djibouti 700 Equatorial Guinea 700 Ethiopia 300 Gambia 600 Guinea 900 Guinea-Bissau 700 India 900 Liberia 900 Madagascar 700 Malawi 600 Mali 500 Myanmar 700 Nepal 800 Niger 600 Rwanda 700 Sao Tome & Principe 600 Tanzania, United R 600 Togo 700 Uganda 400 Zaire 400 Zambia 900 MIDDLE-INCOME Lower-middle-income Albania 4300 Algeria 2500 Antigua & Barbuda 3900 Argentina 4400 Belize 2600 Benin 1000 Bolivia 1500 Botswana 2500 Brazil 4600 Bulgaria 5100 Cambodia 1000 Cameroon 1700 Cape Verde 1400 Chile 4700 China 2500 Colombia 3800 Congo 2100 Costa Rica 4300 Cote d'Ivoire 1400 Cuba 2500 Dominica 3000 Dominican R 2400 Ecuador 2800 El Salvador 1900 Fiji 3600 Gabon 4000 Ghana 1000 Grenada 2800 Guatemala 2400 Guyana 1500 Haiti 1000 Honduras 1500 Indonesia 1800 Iran, Islamic R 3600 Iraq 3500 Jamaica 2600 Jordan 2600 Kenya 1000 Korea, Dem. R 2000 Lao PDR 1000 Lebanon 2200 Lesotho 1400 Malaysia 5100 Maldives 1000 Mauritania 1000 Mauritius 5300 Mexico 5300 Mongolia 2000 Morocco 2400 Mozambique 1100 Namibia 1500 Nicaragua 2700 Nigeria 1000 Pakistan 1800 Panama 3800 Papua New Guinea 2000 Paraguay 2600 Peru 3100 Philippines 2200 Poland 4200 Romania 3000 St Kitts & Nevis 3100 St Lucia 2900 St Vincent 2100 Senegal 1200 Seychelles 3400 Sierra Leone 1000 Solomon Is 2500 Somalia 1300 Sri Lanka 2100 Sudan 1000 Suriname 3800 Swaziland 2100 Syrian Arab R 4500 Thailand 3300 Trinidad & Tobago 4600 Tunisia 3200 Turkey 3900 Vanuatu 1600 Viet Nam 1000 Western Samoa 1900 Yemen 1600 Yugoslavia 4900 Zimbabwe 1400 MIDDLE-INCOME Upper-middle-income Bahrain 9500 Barbados 6000 Cyprus 8400 Czechoslovakia 7400 Greece 6400 Hungary 5900 Ireland 7000 Korea, R 5700 Kuwait 9300 Libyan Arab Jamahiriya 7200 Malta 7500 Oman 9300 Portugal 6000 Saudi Arabia 9300 South Africa 5500 Spain 8200 Luxembourg 14,300 Uruguay 5800 USSR 6300 Venezuela 5600 UPPER-INCOME HIGH-INCOME Australia 14,500 Austria 12,300 Bahamas 10,600 Belgium 13,000 Brunei Darussalam 14,600 Canada 17,700 Denmark 13,600 Finland 14,000 France 13,600 Germany 13,400 Hong Kong 14,000 Iceland 16,800 Israel 10,900 Italy 13,000 Japan 13,600 Luxembourg 14,300 Netherlands 12,700 New Zealand 11,300 Norway 13,800 Qatar 11,800 Singapore 10,500 Sweden 14,900 Switzerland 17,200 United Arab Emirates 19,400 United Kingdom 13,100 USA 19 800 ---------------------------------------------------------------------- page 188 and page 189 Annex 3. Average life expectancy at birth in 160 countries --------------------------------------------------------------------- [Figure Annex 3] --------------------------------------------------------------------- page 190 --------------------------------------------------------------------- [ Figure Annex 3] --------------------------------------------------------------------- page 191 Annex 4. Categories and management objectives of protected areas --------------------------------------------------------------------- I. Strict Nature Reserve. To protect nature and maintain natural processes in an undisturbed state in order to have ecologically representative examples of the natural environment available for scientific study, environmental monitoring, education, and for the maintenance of genetic resources in a dynamic and evolutionary state. II. National Park. To protect outstanding natural and scenic areas of national or international significance for scientific, educational, and recreational use. These are relatively large natural areas not materially altered by human activity where extractive resource uses are not allowed. III. Natural Monument/Natural Landmark. To protect and preserve nationally significant natural features because of their special interest or unique characteristics. These are relatively small areas focused on protection of specific features. IV. Managed Nature Reserve/Wildlife Sanctuary. To assure the natural conditions necessary to protect nationally significant species, groups of species, biotic communities, or physical features of the environment where these may require specific human manipulation for their perpetuation. Controlled harvesting of some resources can be permitted. V. Protected Landscapes and Seascapes. To maintain nationally significant natural landscapes which are characteristic of the harmonious interaction of man and land while providing opportunities for public enjoyment through recreation and tourism within the normal life style and economic activity of these areas. These are mixed cultural/natural landscapes of high scenic value where traditional land uses are maintained. VI. Resource Reserve. To protect the natural resources of the area for future use and prevent or contain development activities that could affect the resource pending the establishment of objectives which are based upon appropriate knowledge and planning. This is a 'holding' category used until a permanent classification can be determined. VII. Anthropological Reserve/Natural Biotic Area. To allow the way of life of societies living in harmony with the environment to continue undisturbed by modern technology. This category is appropriate where resource extraction by indigenous people is conducted in a traditional manner. VIII. Multiple Use Management Area/Managed Resource Area. To provide for the sustained production of water, timber, wildlife, pasture and tourism, with the conservation of nature primarily oriented to the support of the economic activities (although specific zones may also be designated within these areas to achieve specific conservation objectives). Two additional categories are international labels which overlay protected areas in the above eight categories: page 192 Annex 4. Categories and management objectives of protected areas IX. Biosphere Reserve. To conserve for present and future use the diversity and integrity of biotic communities of plants and animals within natural ecosystems, and to safeguard the genetic diversity of species on which their continuing evolution depends. These are internationally designated sites managed for research, education and training. X. World Heritage Site. To protect the natural features for which the area is considered to be of outstanding universal significance. This is a select list of the world's unique natural and cultural sites nominated by countries that are Party to the World Heritage Convention. Ed. note: This system of categories is presently under revision. page 193 Annex 5. Classification of countries by consumption of commercial energy per person and total fertility rate Notes to Table on following pages Consumption of commercial energy per person (1987, in gigajoules [joules 109]). "Commercial energy" includes fossil fuels, peat, and hydro, nuclear and geothermal power. It does not include fuelwood, charcoal, crop residues, dung, biogas, or solar energy. High energy = 160 gigajoules or more/person Medium-high energy = 80-159 gigajoules/person Medium-low energy = 40-79 gigajoules/person Low energy = less than 40 gigajoules/person Sources: Sao Tome & Principe, Seychelles, Brunei D, Hong Kong, Maldives, Vanuatu, Western Samoa, Antigua & Barbuda, Bahamas, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, St Kitts & Nevis, St Lucia, St Vincent (1986 data): GEMS Monitoring and Assessment Research Centre. 1989. United Nations Environment Programme environmental data report. Blackwell, Oxford (UK) & Cambridge (USA). All other countries (1987 data). World Resources Institute, United Nations Environment Programme and United Nations Development Programme. 1990. World resources 1990-91. Oxford University Press, New York & Oxford. Total fertility rate (1990). "Total fertility rate" is the average number of children born alive by a woman in her lifetime. High TFR = total fertility rate of 4.2 and above Medium-high TFR = total fertility rate of 3.2-4.1 Medium-low TFR = total fertility rate of 2.2-3.1 Low TFR = total fertility rate of 2.1 or less Sources: Sao Tome & Principe, Brunei D, Solomon Is, Vanuatu, Western Samoa, Antigua & Barbuda, Bahamas, Dominica, Grenada, St Kitts & Nevis, St Vincent: United Nations Development Programme. 1991. Human development report 1991. Oxford University Press, New York & Oxford. All other countries: Sadik, N. 1991. The state of world population 1991. United Nations Population Fund, New York. Within each box, countries are listed in alphabetical order within regional groups. The regional groups appear in the following order: Sub-Saharan Africa North Africa & West Asia South & East Asia Pacific North & Central America (including Caribbean) page 194 Annex 5. Classification of countries by consumption of commercial energy... South America Europe & USSR The following data appear after the name of each country: First number, consumption of commercial energy per person (1986/1987, in gigajoules) Second number, total fertility rate (1990) Commercial energy data for Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia and Swaziland are combined with data for South Africa, these countries being part of the South Africa Customs Union. The figure for consumption of commercial energy per person for these countries is given in square brackets. It is assumed that this figure represents South African consumption fairly closely; but that consumption per person in the other countries is much lower. * Total fertility rate data for Germany (German Democratic Republic and Federal Republic of Germany) and for Yemen (Yemen Arab Republic and Peoples Democratic Republic of Yemen) are combined. [Table Annex 5] page 195, page 196, page 197 Annex 6. Indicators of sustainability ------------------------------------------------------------------- A sustainable society enables its members to achieve a high quality of life in ways that are ecologically sustainable. To measure progress toward a sustainable society, we need indicators of quality of life and of ecological sustainability. Requirements of indicators The concepts of quality of life and of ecological sustainability are broader than their measurement. By definition, indicators can measure only components of either. The search for reliable and efficient indicators of sustainability is just beginning. The indicators should be quantitative and some at least should be convertible to a monetary value so that they can be related to the national accounts. They should not be too difficult or expensive to measure. The following list of possible indicators is by no means comprehensive. Some do not meet these criteria. Quality of life The United Nations Development Programme has adopted two indices to measure human development or the quality of human life: a Human Development Index (HDI) and a Human Freedom Index (HFI). HDI has three components: - Longevity, measured by life expectancy at birth. Long life is valued because it increases the opportunity for a person to pursue goals and develop abilities and is associated with good health and adequate nutrition. - Knowledge, or educational attainment, measured by adult literacy and mean years of schooling. This helps people to realize their potential and take advantage of opportunities. - Income, measured by per capita Gross Domestic Product, adjusted to account for national differences in purchasing power and the distorting effect of official exchange rates (real GDP), and adjusted further to reflect diminishing returns from income. HFI is a modification of Charles Humana's World Human Rights Guide, which uses 40 indicators to measure freedom. A "one" is assigned to each right or freedom that is protected and a "zero" to each right or freedom that is violated. Ecological sustainability A society is ecologically sustainable when it: - conserves ecological life-support systems and biodiversity; - ensures that uses of renewable resources are sustainable and minimizes the depletion of nonrenewable resources; - keeps within the carrying capacity of supporting ecosystems. page 198 Annex 6. Indicators of sustainability Conserving life-support systems and biodiversity Conserving life-support systems needs a combination of preventing pollution, restoring and maintaining the integrity of the Earth's ecosystems, and developing a comprehensive system of protected areas. Conserving biodiversity requires these measures plus action to restore and maintain species and genetic stocks. Primary indicators measure the condition of the ecosystem or species concerned. Secondary indicators measure human impacts. Tertiary indicators measure actions to reduce impacts. Whether the indicator is primary, secondary or tertiary is shown by a number in brackets. l. Progress in preventing pollution Annual emissions of carbon dioxide, methane, CFCs, sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides: total, per capita, and per unit of GDP. [2] River quality: dissolved oxygen; nitrate concentration. [l] Wastewater treatment: percentage of population served by wastewater treatment plants (primary, secondary and tertiary). [3] Industrial accidents: number, number of deaths, per unit of GDP. [2] 2. Progress in restoring and maintaining the integrity of ecosystems Percentages of land area that are natural, modified, cultivated, built, degraded. [l] A subset of the above would be percentage of land under forest, and percentages of forest land that are natural (old growth), modified, planted, degraded. [l] Percent of natural and modified ecosystems or vegetation types in fragments greater than l0,000 hectares. [l] 3. Progress in developing a comprehensive system of protected areas Percentage of each ecological region that is covered by protected areas. [3] 4. Progress in restoring and maintaining species and genetic stocks Number of species, and percent threatened with extinction, percent threatened with extirpation, percent with stable or increasing populations, and percent with significantly declining populations. [l] Number of endemic species, and percent threatened with extinction [l], and percent in protected areas. [3] Percent of threatened species with viable populations in ex situ facilities. [3] Domesticated species diversity index (number of crop and livestock species raised in a region as percent of number grown 10 or 50 years previously). [l] Domesticated varietal index (number of varieties of each crop and breeds of each livestock species raised in a region as percent of number l0 or 50 years previously). [l] Crop and livestock uniformity index (relatedness of crop varieties and livestock breeds). [l] Percent traditional varieties in ex situ collections. [3] Genebank status index (percent of collection regenerated within past 15 years). [3] 199 Annex 6. Indicators of sustainability Ensuring uses of renewable resources are sustainable and minimizing the depletion of nonrenewable resources 1. Importance of the sector for income (value added) and employment Determining the total value-added contributed by the sector provides a basis for calculating the dollar value of changes in the status of the sector's resources and ecological infrastructure (see below). 2. Status of the sector's resources A sector's resources are the natural assets that it uses directly: trees in the case of the timber sector; and hydro, oil, natural gas, coal, and wood in the case of the energy sector. Two sets of data are needed: the size of the current stock; and flow data (changes in production, consumption, and the size of the stock). 3. Status of the sector's ecological infrastructure A sector's ecological infrastructure consists of the ecological processes and biological diversity that support it: for example, soil, water, and the genetic diversity of crops and livestock in the case of the agriculture sector. For living-resource sectors (timber, fisheries and aquaculture, other harvesting, agriculture and horticulture, tourism and recreation, and some of the energy sector), measures are needed of the status of the hydrological cycle (quality, quantity and reliability of water supply); soil structure and fertility; air quality and climate; and the ecosystem, species, and within-species diversity required for long-term production. For nonliving-resource sectors (mining and most of the energy sector), measures are needed of the quality, quantity and reliability of the water supply, and on air quality and changes in the reliability of climate. 4. The sector's compatibilities and conflicts with the sustainability of other sectors Items 2 and 3 above measure what might be called the sector's internal sustainability. We also need to assess its external sustainability - its impacts on other resource sectors, on the businesses outside the resource sectors, on human health and infrastructure, and on the integrity of the biosphere or planetary ecosystem. 5. Main socioeconomic influences on the sector's sustainability Several factors make it easier or more difficult for a sector to be sustainable. The chief ones are: - The ratio of benefits to a given stock of resources. One of the ways of achieving sustainability is to increase the benefits from a given stock of resources. Conversely, a decline in benefits from a stock of resources is a sign of unsustainability. Two benefits that should be looked at are jobs and total income (corporate, personal, municipal, provincial). Indicators include trends in earnings and production, the ratio of jobs and income to production, and changes in value added per unit of resource. - The extent to which the resource users pay the full costs to society of their decisions. Indicators include the proportions of development and conservation costs paid by the industry, government, and other parties (including future generations); and the net charge (tax) paid or subsidy received by the sector, once the total amount of taxes has been subtracted from the total amount of subsidies. - Effective participation of communities and interest groups in the decisions that most affect them. Do the communities and interests that depend on the sector have an effective say in how the sector's conservation and development are planned and managed? page 200 Annex 6. Indicators of sustainability - Adoption of an approach to decision making that tries to foresee and prevent problems. How well are the compatibilities and conflicts with other sectors and interests being anticipated and managed? Keeping within the carrying capacity of supporting ecosystems The following indicators would measure the effectiveness of action to reduce consumption and stabilize population: - per capita consumption of food, water, timber, minerals. - per capita use of energy. - energy use per unit of GDP. - generation of municipal waste, per capita, and per unit of GDP. - generation of industrial waste, per capita, and per unit of GDP. - generation of nuclear waste, per capita, per unit of GDP, and per unit of energy. - population trend. - Total Fertility Rate. - population density. page 201 Annex 7. Estimated cost of implementing major aspects of this Strategy (US$Billions) 1. Stabilizing Populations: A. Family Planning Services B. Education and Health Improvements C. Financial Incentives 2. Reducing Deforestation and Conserving Biodiversity 3. Forest and Tree Planting 4. Energy Conservation A. Increasing Efficiency B. Developing Renewables 5. Protecting Topsoil on Cropland 6. Retiring Third World Debt -------------------------------------------------------------------- Year 1A 1B 1C 2 3 4A 4B 5 6 Total -------------------------------------------------------------------- 1991 3 6 4 1 2 5 2 4 20 47 1992 4 8 6 2 3 10 5 9 30 77 1993 5 10 8 3 4 15 8 14 40 107 1994 5 11 10 4 5 20 10 18 50 133 1995 6 11 12 5 6 25 12 24 50 151 1996 6 11 14 6 7 30 15 24 40 153 1997 7 11 14 7 8 35 18 24 30 154 1998 7 11 14 8 8 40 21 24 20 153 1999 8 11 14 8 8 45 24 24 10 152 2000 8 11 14 8 9 50 27 24 10 161 Total 59 101 110 52 60 275 142 189 300 1288 Estimates for all columns, except biodiversity, from Worldwatch Institute, adjusted to start in 1991. The table does not account for all priority actions. Education and health improvements. Providing elementary education for 120 million schoolage children not now in school = $6 billion/year at $50/child. Providing literacy training for women above school-age = $2 billion/year. Immunizing the 55% of the world's children unprotected from diphtheria, measles, polio and tuberculosis = $2 billion/year. Health education for mothers = $1 billion/year. Reducing deforestation. Estimated to cost $800/currently deforested hectare to initiate forest management programmes and stimulate sedentary cultivation (McKinsey & Company. 1989. "Protecting the global atmosphere: funding mechanisms". The Netherlands). Other biodiversity conservation actions not yet included in estimate. Forest and tree planting. Assumes a total of 150 million hectares to be planted - some as plantations, but most by farmers (agroforestry) - to meet needs for fuelwood, soil and water conservation, and lumber and pulpwood. Costs range from $200-$400/hectare for agroforestry to more than $2,000/hectare for commercial plantations. Assumes an average cost of $400/hectare. Protecting topsoil on cropland, Cost of converting highly erodible cropland to grassland or woodland = $16 billion/year from 1995. Assumes world area of cropland that cannot sustain cultivation with and economically feasible soil-conserving agricultural practices is 128 million page 202 Annex 7. Estimated Cost of implementing Major Aspects of This Strategy (US$ Billions) hectares, and cost of conversion equals that in USA of $50/hectare. Global soil conservation effort estimated to cost an additional $8 billion/year by 1995. Retiring Third World debt. See Chapter 3 for an explanation. Source of Worldwatch Institute estimates: Brown, L.R., and Wolf. C. 1988. Reclaiming the future. In: Brown L.R. et al. State of the world 198& a Worldwatch Institute report on progress toward a sustainable society. Norton, New York & London. page 203 Annex 8. Strategies for sustainability This annex outlines how to undertake a strategy for sustainability at national and local levels. "National" includes "subnational" in the case of countries with federal systems. More detailed guidance will be made available by the Working Group on Strategies for Sustainability of IUCN's Commission on Environmental Strategy and Planning. Strategies for sustainability are a means to achieve a sustainable combination of development and conservation in an integrated fashion. They are partly a highly participatory form of planning and policy-making. But they go further by including the actions needed to turn the plans and policies into results. They are most useful at national and local levels, but international strategies also can be undertaken. Since each society has unique conditions and needs, and will design its strategy accordingly, what follows is intended as general advice, not as hard-and-fast rules. Components of a strategy Successful strategies have four components in common: - consultation and consensus building; - information assembly and analysis; - policy formulation; - action planning and implementation. Demonstration projects may also be undertaken so that participants can see concrete results from the strategy while it is being developed. 1. Consultation and consensus building Consensus means general agreement on a course of action. This component provides a forum and process through which participants can build a consensus on the sustainable development of their region. It may include public meetings and workshops, opinion surveys, written and spoken submissions, and group discussions within communities. It is the means by which anybody concerned - communities, government, industry, other interest groups, and individuals - can participate in developing the strategy. The aim is to find out people's knowledge, concerns, interests, and what results they would most like from the strategy. It ensures that the strategy builds and reflects a consensus of all participants on: - sustainable development objectives; - the issues that need to be resolved and the information required for sound decisions; - policies, procedures and actions to achieve sustainable development. It also increases the chance that all parties will implement the strategy, by enabling them to contribute effectively to it and by giving them a stake in the strategy's implementation. page 204 Annex 8. Strategies for sustainability 2. Information assembly and analysis .. Effective strategies are built on facts. This component of a strategy assembles and analyzes the information necessary for sound decisions on economic development, environmental conservation, and their integration. Information is needed on: - The people. Status and trends in population, employment, and resource use. Values and perceptions. Interactions among communities and interest groups. Common interests and compatibilities. Avoidable and unavoidable conflicts. The economy. Status and trends of the main economic sectors, particularly the resource based sectors (energy, timber, mining, fisheries, aquaculture, tourism); their social and economic importance; their sustainability, both in their own terms and in relation to other sectors; their interactions with each other; their potential for increased sustainable development; what is required to conserve their resource base (the ecosystems and natural resources they depend on). - The environment and natural resources. Status and trends of life- support systems, biodiversity, renewable resources, and nonrenewable resources; what is required to maintain, enhance and restore them, and use them sustainably. - Institutions, laws, policies that promote or obstruct sustainable development. Three main sources of information are used: - submissions from government agencies, communities, industries, other interest groups, research and educational institutions, and the general public. These are obtained through the consultation and consensus building component; - available reports by government agencies and nongovernmental sources (universities, industries, and other interest groups); - background studies commissioned for the strategy. The nature and scope of the issues and interests that participants decide should be covered by the strategy govern how much information is needed. However, this is not a major research effort. It is a matter of assembling and analyzing available facts, and separating what is known from what is a matter of opinion. Important questions may emerge that require research. The strategy may encourage such research as a separate project, but does not wait for the results of that research. 3. Policy formulation This component is developed on the basis of the information analysis, through consultation and consensus building. It sets out agreed policies to achieve sustainable development and in particular to: - develop an economy that is sustainable and consistent with the needs and values of the participants; - coordinate and allocate resources among economic sectors; - promote each sector's sustainable development and secure its resource base; - maintain and enhance life-support systems and biodiversity; - improve decision-making and resolve conflicts that may arise in the future, including a mechanism for making decisions in the event of an impasse; - reduce resource waste, and achieve a sustainable level of resource consumption. page 205 Annex 8. Strategies for sustainability 4. Action planning and implementation An action plan sets out how the participants will implement the agreed policies. It may be divided into two parts: strategic directions, which describe broadly what needs to be done; and specific actions to be taken over the next two years or so. A budget is usually given for the specific actions. The action plan includes a procedure for monitoring and evaluating implementation and its results. 5. Demonstration projects Most people have great difficulty grasping unfamiliar abstractions like sustainability or sustainable development. Model sustainable development projects can demonstrate the meaning and practicality of sustainability. Such projects could simultaneously help define more precisely the strategy's objectives, build public support for their achievement, test the feasibility and effectiveness of proposed actions, and explore practical ways of reducing conflicts and enhancing compatibilities among resource uses. Demonstration projects are also a means of implementing parts of the strategy on which there is early consensus, and which can be organized and funded before preparation of the rest of strategy is completed. Early implementation is essential to avoid the impression that the strategy is all talk and no action. Organization of a strategy National and subnational strategies can be developed in two years, but may take longer. Local strategies usually take less time: 12-18 months, depending on their complexity. A local strategy by a single municipality can be developed within a year. Strategies involving several communities are likely to require more time, because of the need to reach agreement among them all. The results of a strategy are the agreed policies and the actions taken to put the policies into practice. A key step in the development of a strategy is the preparation of a strategy document. This provides a summary description and analysis of the people, economy, environment, and institutions of the area; and sets out the agreed policies and action plan. The basic organization of a strategy consists of a steering committee and a secretariat. The steering committee should be representative of the main participants in the strategy. It is responsible for overall direction of the strategy, and ensuring the full participation of all interest groups. The secretariat undertakes the day-to-day management of the strategy's development. It is responsible for organizing consultation and consensus building, assembly and analysis of information, and drafting the strategy document. The secretariat also produces a newsletter or equivalent to keep everyone informed of the strategy's progress. Strategy documentation should be in the local language and in a form and style with which people feel comfortable. For instance, in communities where literacy is low and issues are communicated orally, documentation could be entirely on tape (including video tape if the funds are available). In such a case, tape recorders (and plenty of batteries) should be made widely available. Organization of a national strategy A national strategy should be a government policy statement, not a public advisory statement; but it should reflect a true partnership between the governmental and page 206 Annex 8. Strategies for sustainability nongovernmental sectors. The cabinet (or equivalent) should be committed to its implementation and the government should lead its preparation. However, the strategy should result in commitments to action by interest groups and other nongovernmental agencies, as well as by government; and it should be prepared jointly by government and the public. As far as possible, national strategies should be developed by nationals. If expatriate experts are needed, they should play a minor role. The commissioning authority of the strategy (the body that permits strategy preparation to go ahead and that will receive the strategy document) should be a central agency of government, not a line agency. The approval authority (the body that will approve the strategy's policy and action recommendations) should be the cabinet and legislature (or equivalents). A high level (Minister, Deputy Minister or equivalent) steering committee should be responsible for: - overall direction of the strategy; - keeping cabinet (or equivalent) informed of emerging policy issues; - ensuring the full participation of all sectors and interest groups. It should be large enough to ensure the full involvement of the key government agencies and the major nongovernmental interest groups; yet small enough to function effectively as a body. A small full-time secretariat must undertake day-to-day management of the strategy's preparation. It would be responsible for: - organizing the consultation and information programme; - coordinating the preparation of sectoral and other studies; - drafting the strategy document; - identifying potential demonstration projects; - keeping the steering committee fully informed of progress. The size of the secretariat will depend on the size and complexity of the country to be served. Participants in the strategy's preparation and implementation should include all government agencies, industry and business, women's and other nongovernmental interest groups, indigenous peoples, trades unions, local governments, professional societies, universities, research institutions, schools and other educational bodies, and interested members of the public. The more people that engage in the strategy, the greater the chance of its success. Their participation should begin with the setting of the strategy's objectives. Strategy process Strategies go through three phases: start-up; preparation; and implementation. Start-up The start-up phase covers: - promotion and explanation of the concept of a strategy for sustainability, including assessment of the need for a strategy and the feasibility of its preparation; - mobilizing support for the strategy's preparation; - definition of the scope and components of the strategy; - preparation of a project proposal, including workplan and budget; page 207 Annex 8. Strategies for sustainability - decision by government to proceed with the strategy; - provision of funding; - organization of the next phase, including formation of the steering committee and secretariat. Governments or NGOs can initiate the process. In either case governments must become involved at an early stage. Preparation Preparation begins with briefings of all parties on the purpose, scope, process and timetable of the strategy. The briefings should include public meetings, which would also seek the views of the people of the area on the objectives and guiding principles of the strategy. The strategy document should be drafted by the secretariat from: - background studies prepared by government agencies, universities and research institutions, interest groups, working groups, and consultants; - briefs submitted by interest groups and members of the public; - the findings of opinion surveys, public meetings, and workshops. Background studies are needed to analyze: - natural resources and ecosystems, their current and potential contributions to development, problems affecting them, and management status; - the effectiveness of existing legislation and institutions for natural resource management and sustainable development. Many of the studies could be prepared by the government agencies responsible for the resources concerned. This would make use of the expertise and skills of the agencies, as well as provide them with an opportunity to consider their responsibilities from a broader perspective than usual, taking account of their cross-sectoral and longer term implications. Universities and research institutions also have a major role in the preparation of studies. In addition, consultants can be commissioned to write papers on subjects on which they are specially knowledgeable, that would benefit from a second opinion, and/or that go beyond the mandates of particular agencies. Interest groups and members of the public should be invited to submit briefs, outlining their views on: - development and conservation needs of their sector or interest; - key resource and environment issues within their own sector or interest; - key interactions, including compatibilities and conflicts, with other sectors and interests; - ways of taking advantage of compatibilities and reducing and resolving conflicts; - what the sector or interest group concerned will do to meet its development and conservation needs, respond to compatibilities with other sectors, and reduce and resolve conflicts; - what the government should do. Opinion surveys are an effective way of obtaining people's views on: - their interpretation, in the form of attainable objectives, of the goals of the strategy, and the extent to which they have been attained; - the values of the environment and natural resources of the area, identifying those places, species of plants and animals, and uses of resources and ecosystems that the people of the area particularly value and which they feel contribute to the quality of their lives; page 208 Annex 8. Strategies for sustainability - the main resource and environment issues, the environmental changes they have witnessed, the resource and environment problems that concern them, and how they feel they could be solved. Two opinion surveys - one at the start of the strategy's preparation and one at the end - would reveal the extent to which involvement in the strategy's preparation had changed people's attitudes. Workshops should be organized to review the sectoral, regional and other background studies, as well as cross-sectoral groupings of studies (for example, forest resources and ecosystems, and coastal zone resources and ecosystems). The concerned interest groups should be invited to form working groups for this purpose. Public meetings should be held to review the first draft of the strategy documents. There should also be a strategy newsletter and regular media briefings to keep participants informed of progress. Strategies are ambitious undertakings and the process can lose direction or get bogged down. There are ways of avoiding this: - Concentrate initially on formulation and approval of a broad but effective statement of principles and objectives that can provide the conceptual foundation and umbrella for more detailed policy development. - Concentrate on consultation and consensus building, placing priority on creating supportive attitudes and opinions as the first step. - Once there is agreement on principles and objectives to provide the framework for subsequent integration, prepare and approve sectoral components in sequence or in parallel. Preparation of the strategy is completed when government and other partners formally adopt a strategy document consisting of a policy and action plan. Implementation The implementation phase of a strategy is the period when the bulk of the agreed and recommended actions are taken. The success of these actions depends heavily on the skill and thoroughness with which the preparation phase is carried out. Indicators of progress and monitoring Each strategy's action plan should provide for an independent body to monitor and evaluate implementation of the strategy, at two levels: - Implementation of the action plan a. Projects funded and other actions taken to implement the action plan. b. Changes in legislation and institutions as a result of the strategy. c. Concrete evidence of increased awareness/understanding of/consensus on the issues covered by the strategy by specific sectors, interest groups, communities, and the general public. - Results d. Ecological results. Changes in the status of ecological processes, biodiversity, and renewable resources. e. Socioeconomic results. Changes in social and economic conditions. page 209 Glossary Terms are defined in the sense that they are used in Caring for the Earth. Terms that are cross-referenced are indicated by CAPITALS. Biological diversity or Biodiversity. The variety of life in all its forms, levels and combinations. Includes ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY, SPECIES DIVERSITY, and GENETIC DIVERSITY. Biosphere. The thin covering of the planet that contains and sustains life. Some writers distinguish the biosphere (life), hydrosphere (water), atmosphere (air), and lithosphere (rock, the crust of the earth). As used here, the biosphere includes the atmosphere and hydrosphere and that part of the lithosphere that contains and sustains living organisms. Built ecosystem. ECOSYSTEM dominated by buildings, roads, airports, docks, dams, mines, and other human structures. Includes urban and suburban parks, gardens, and golf courses. Carrying capacity. Capacity of an ECOSYSTEM to support healthy ORGANISMS while maintaining its productivity, adaptability, and capability of renewal. Conservation. The management of human use of ORGANISMS or ECOSYSTEMS to ensure such use is sustainable. Besides SUSTAINABLE USE, conservation includes PROTECTION, MAINTENANCE, REHABILITATION, RESTORATION, and ENHANCEMENT of populations and ecosystems. Cultivated ecosystem. ECOSYSTEM where human impact is greater than that of any other species, and most of whose structural components are cultivated. page 210 Glossary Degraded ecosystem. ECOSYSTEM whose diversity and productivity have been so reduced that they are unlikely to recover without REHABILITATION or RESTORATION measures. Development. Increasing the capacity to meet human needs and improve the quality of human life. Ecological process. A continuous action or series of actions that is governed or strongly influenced by one or more ECOSYSTEMS. Ecosystem. A system of plants, animals and other ORGANISMS together with the non-living components of their environment. Ecosystem diversity. The variety and frequency of different ECOSYSTEMS. Enhancement. Increasing the capacity of en ECOSYSTEM or population to fulfill a particular function or yield a specified product. Genetic diversity. The variety and frequency of different genes and/or genetic stocks. High income. Real gross domestic product per person of PPP$10,000 or more. Life-support system. An ECOLOGICAL PROCESS that sustains the productivity, adaptability and capacity for renewal of lands, waters, and/or the BIOSPHERE as a whole. Lower-income. Real Gross Domestic Product per person of PPP$5,499 or less. Low-income. Real Gross Domestic Product per person of less than PPP$1,000. Maintenance. Keeping something in good health or repair. page 210 Glossary Modified ecosystem. ECOSYSTEM where human impact is greater than that of any other species, but whose structural components are not cultivated. Natural capital, natural wealth, natural assets. The stock of LIFESUPPORT SYSTEMS, BIODIVERSITY, renewable RESOURCES, and nonrenewable resources. Natural ecosystem. ECOSYSTEM where since the industrial revolution (say 1750) human impact (a) has been no greater than that of any other native species, and (b) has not affected the ecosystem's structure. Human impact excludes changes of global extent, such as climate change due to global warming. Non-governmental organization (NGO). Any organization that is not a part of federal, provincial, territorial, or municipal government. Unless otherwise indicated, includes private voluntary organizations, corporations, educational institutions, and labour unions. Organism. A living being or form of life that is a cell or is composed of cells. Any member of the kingdoms Prokaryotae (bacteria), Protoctista, Fungi, Animalia, or Plantae. PPP. Standardized indices of Gross Domestic Product per capita using purchasing power parities instead of exchange rates as conversion factors. Preservation. Keeping something in its present state. Primary Environmental Care (PEC). The organization, strengthening, and application of an individual's or community's abilities to care for its environment. Protected area. An area dedicated primarily to PROTECTION and enjoyment of natural or cultural heritage, to MAINTENANCE of BIODIVERSITY, and/or to maintenance of LIFE-SUPPORT SYSTEMS (see Annex 4 for categories). Protection. Securing something for a particular purpose. Resource. Anything that is used directly by people. A renewable resource can renew itself (or be renewed) at a constant level, either because it recycles quite rapidly (water), or because it is alive and can propagate itself or be propagated (organisms and ecosystems). A nonrenewable resource is one whose consumption necessarily involves its depletion. Rehabilitation. To return a degraded ecosystem or population to an undegraded condition, which may be different from its original condition. See also RESTORATION. Restoration. To return a degraded ecosystem or population to its original condition. See also REHABILITATION. Species diversity. The variety and frequency of different species. Strategy. A combination of communication and consensus building, information assembly and analysis, policy formulation, and action planning and implementation, to enable a society to conserve its NATURAL CAPITAL (conservation strategy) and to achieve SUSTAINABILITY by integrating economic development and conservation of natural capital (strategy for sustainability). Stumpage. A tax based on the quantity (and ideally the full worth) of timber from publicly owned lands. Sustainability. A characteristic of a process or state that can be maintained indefinitely. Sustainable development. Improving the quality of human life while living within the carrying capacity of supporting ecosystems. Sustainable use. USE of an ORGANISM, ECOSYSTEM or other RENEWABLE RESOURCE at a rate within its capacity for renewal. Total fertility rate (TFR). The average number of children born alive to a woman in her lifetime. Upper-income. Real Gross Domestic Product per person of PPP$5,500 or more. page 211 Glossary Use. Any human activity involving an ORGANISM, ECOSYSTEM, or nonrenewable RESOURCE that benefits people. The activities range from those having a direct impact on the organisms, ecosystems, or nonrenewable resources concerned (such as fishing, farming, mining) to those having no impact (such as appreciation and contemplation). page 212 Notes and sources Foreword IUCN/UNEP/WWF. 1980. World Conservation Strategy: Living Resource Conservation for Sustainable Development. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, United Nations Environment Programme and World Wildlife Fund, Gland, Switzerland. United Nations General Assembly Resolution 42/186 of 11 December 1987 on the Environmental Perspective to the Year 2000 and Beyond. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Nairobi, 1988. World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED). 1987. Our Common Future. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Chapter 1 Daly, H.E., Post, J., Piddington, K., Pratt, J., Warford, J., English, J. and Partow, Z. Undated. Sustainable development: towards an operational definition. Informal document. The World Bank, Washington, DC. Jacobs, P. and Munro, D. (Eds). 1987. Conservation with Equity: Strategies for Sustainable Development. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Pearce, D., Markandya, A. and Barbier, E.B. 1989. Blueprint for a Green Economy. Earthscan, London. UNEP. 1988. Environmental Perspective to the Year 2000 and Beyond. United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi. WCED. 1987. Op. cit. Chapter 2 The IUCN Ethics Working Group contributed to preparation of this chapter, including Box 2. The proposal for a world organization (Action 2.4) is based upon an idea advanced by Dr M.S. Swaminathan, President of IUCN, 1984- 1990. In: IUCN. 1991. Proceedings of the 18th Session of the General Assembly of IUCN, Perth, Australia, 28 November-5 December 1990. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights was adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations in 1948. To give legal form to the provisions of the Declaration, the United Nations has adopted the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. page 213 Notes and sources The World Charter for Nature was adopted in 1982 by the General Assembly of the United Nations. For its text and history see: Burhenne, W.E. and Irwin, W.A. 1983. The World Charter for Nature. A background paper. Beitrage zur Umwelt-gestaltung A90. Erich Schmidt Verlag, Berlin. Berry, R.J. 1989. Science, Mankind and Ethics. Concluding address to the Sixth Economic Summit on Bioethics, Brussels, Belgium, 10- 12 May 1989. In: Bourdeau, Ph., Fasella, P.M. and Teller, A. 1990. Environmental Ethics: Man's Relationship with Nature - Interactions with Science. Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg. Delors, J. 1989. Opening address to the Sixth Economic Summit on Bioethics, Brussels, Belgium, 10-12 May 1989. In: Bourdeau, Ph. et al. 1990. Op. cit. Engel, J.R. and Engel, J.G. (Eds). 1990. Ethics of Environment and Development. Belhaven Press, London. IUCN. 1988. Declaration of Fontainebleau. Statement adopted on the occasion of the Fortieth Anniversary of the founding of IUCN. IUCN Bulletin 20(1-3) 1989. Chapter 3 Berry, R.J. 1989. Op. cit. Dankelman, I. and Davidson, J. 1988. Women and Environment in the Third World. Earthscan Publications, London, in association with IUCN. Durning, Alan B. 1990. Ending Poverty. In: Brown, Lester R. et al. 1990. State of the World 1990. A Worldwatch Institute Report on Progress Towards a Sustainable Society. W.W. Norton, New York and London. Renner, Michael. 1990. Converting to a Peaceful Economy. In: Brown, Lester, R. et al. 1990. Op. cit. South Commission. 1990. The Challenge to the South. Oxford University Press, Oxford. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). 1990. Human Development Report 1990. Oxford University Press, New York and Oxford. UNDP. 1991. Human Development Report 1991. Oxford University Press, New York and Oxford. UNEP. 1990. The State of the Environment: Children and the Environment. United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi. UNEP. 1991. Environmental Data Report. Third Edition. Prepared for the United Nations Environment Programme by the GEMS Monitoring and Assessment Centre, London, UK, in cooperation with the World Resources Institute, Washington, DC, and the Department of the Environment, London. Basil Blackwell, Oxford. World Resources Institute (WRI). 1990. World Resources 1990-91. A Report by the World Resources Institute in collaboration with the United Nations Environment Programme and the United Nations Development Programme. Oxford University Press, New York and Oxford. Chapter 4 Conference Statement and Task Group Recommendations of the Second World Climate Conference. Geneva Switzerland 29 October- 7 November 1990. page 214 Notes and sources Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS). 1988. Assessment of freshwater quality. United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi, World Health Organization, Geneva. Holdgate, M.W., Bruce, J., Camacho, R.F., Desai, N., Mahtab, F.U., Mascarenhas, O., Maunder, W.H., Shibab, H. and Tewungwa, S. 1989. Climate Change: Meeting the Challenge. Report by a Commonwealth Group of Experts. Commonwealth Secretariat, London. Hunter Jr., M.L., Jacobson Jr., G.L., and Webb III, T. 1988. Paleocology and the coarse filter approach to maintaining biological diversity. Conservation Biology 2(4):375-385. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 1990a. Policymakers summary of the scientific assessment of climate change. Report prepared for IPCC by Working Group I, June 1990. World Meteorological Organization and United Nations Environment Programme, Geneva and Nairobi. IPCC. 1990b. Policymakers summary of the potential impacts of climate change. Report prepared for IPCC by Working Group II, June 1990. WMO and UNEP, Geneva and Nairobi. IPCC. 1990c. Policymakers summary of the formulation of response strategies. Report prepared for IPPC by Working Group III, June 1990. WMO and UNEP, Geneva and Nairobi. Lovelock, J.E. 1979. Gaia: A new look at life on earth. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Mackinnon, J., Mackinnon, C., Child, G. and Thorsell, J. 1986. Managing Protected Areas in the Tropics. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. McCormick, J. 1989. Acid Earth: the global threat of acid pollution. Second edition. Earthscan, London. McNeely, J.A. 1988. Economics and Biological Diversity: Developing and Using Economic Incentives to Conserve Biological Resources. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. McNeely, J.A., Miller, K.R., Reid, W.V., Mittermeier, R.A. and Werner, T.B. 1990. Conserving the World's Biological Diversity. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, WRI, CI, WWF-US and the World Bank, Washington, DC. Miller, K.R. 1980. Planificacion de parques nacionales para el ecodesarrollo en Latinoamerica. Fundacion para la Ecologia y para la Proteccion del Medio Ambiente, Madrid. Prescott-Allen, C. and Prescott-Allen, R. (in preparation). Wildlife and rural development. Case studies in sustainable rural development using native biodiversity. Salm, R.V. and Clark, J.R. 1984. Marine and Coastal Protected Areas: a Guide for Planners and Managers. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. United Nations. 1989. Law of the Sea. Protection and preservation of the marine environment. Report to the Secretary-General. United Nations General Assembly document A1441461, September 1989. World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). 1990. Climate Change. Position Paper. WWF, Gland, Switzerland. World Resources Institute (WRI). 1988. World Resources 1988-89. An Assessment of the Resource Base that Supports the Global Economy. World Resources Institute and the International Institute for Environment and Development in collaboration with the United Nations Environment Programme. Basic Books, New York. WRI. 1990. Op. cit. Chapter 22, Freshwater, p.l70. WRI/IUCN/UNEP. 1991. Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Draft prepared by WRI, IUCN and UNEP. page 215 Notes and sources Chapter 5 Dankelman, I. and Davidson, J. 1988. Op. cit. Elkington, J. and Hales, J. 1989. The green consumer guide. Gollancz, London. Family Health International. 1990. A penny a day. Family Health International, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA. Holdgate, M.W., et al. 1989. Op. cit. IUCN Task Force on Population and Conservation for Sustainable Development. 1987. Population and sustainable development. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Knodel, J., Havanon, N. and Sittitrai, W. 1989. Family size and the education of children in the context of rapid fertility decline. Research Report 89-155. Population Studies Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Pollution Probe Foundation. 1989. The Canadian green consumer guide. McClelland and Stewart, Toronto. Sadik, N. 1989. Safeguarding the future. United Nations Population Fund, New York. Sadik, N. 1990. The State of World Population 1990. United Nations Population Fund, New York. Chapter 6 Contributions to this section have come from a workshop: "Communicating the World Conservation Strategy", convened by M.A. Partha Sarathy, Chairman, IUCN Commission on Education and Training, April 1990, Bangalore, India. Engel, R.J. 1990. The ethics of sustainable development. In: Engel, J.R. and Engel, J.G. (Eds). 1990. Op. cit. UNESCO/UNEP. 1987. International Strategy for Action in the Field of Environmental Education and Training for the 1990s. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris, and the United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi. Chapter 7: Much of this chapter is based on work done by a Primary Environmental Care Workshop, convened by the Direzione Generale per la Cooperazione allo Sviluppo (DGCS) of the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Second World Conservation Strategy Project. We are indebted to the workshop participants, to Minister A. Catalano de Melilli, who chaired the workshop, and to G. Borrini who originated the concept of PEC used here. Hardoy, J.E., and Satterthwaite, D. 1989. Squatter citizen: life in the urban Third World. Earthscan Publications, London. Holling, C.S. (Ed.). 1978. Adaptive Environmental Assessment and Management. IIASA, Vienna. Malcolm, S. 1989 (2nd edition). Local action for a better environment: helping people to get involved Steve Malcolm, PO Box 452 Ringwood 3034, Victoria, Australia. McNeely, J.A. 1988. Op. cit. Chapter 8 Preparation of this chapter was substantially assisted by two workshops convened by the Second World Conservation Strategy Project: one on economics of sustainable development page 216 Notes and sources (Bedford, UK, 30 June-2 July 1989), organized by the International Institute for Environment and Development, and chaired by D.W. Pearce; the other on policy, planning and institutions (Racine, Wisconsin, USA, 2 April-l May 1990), organized by the Johnson Foundation, and chaired by D.A. Munro. We are grateful to the organizers and participants of both workshops. Paragraphs on economics were reviewed in draft by E.B. Barbier, to whom we also express warm thanks. Statements on law were kindly supplied by N. Robinson, Center for Environmental Legal Studies, Pace University School of Law, and M. Forster, Freshfields, London. Baines, J.T., Wright, J.C., Taylor, C.N., Leathers, K.L. and O'Fallon, C. 1988. The sustainability of natural and physical resources - interpreting the concept. Studies in Resource Management 5. Centre for Resource Management, Canterbury, New Zealand. Berg, R.J. 1989. Public administration for sustainable societies. The Johnson Foundation, Racine, WI, USA. Berkes, F., Feeny, D., McCay, B.J. and Acheson, J.M. 1989. The benefits of the commons. Nature 340:91-93. Colby, M.E. 1989. Economics and environmental management: the case for environmental taxes. Draft. The World Bank, Washington, DC. Hicks, J.R. 1948. Value and capital. Clarendon, Oxford. Lund, H.G. and Preto, G. (Eds). 1989. Global Natural Resource Monitoring and Assessment: Preparing for the 21st century. American Society for Programmetry and Remote Sensing, Vols. 1-3. Maryland, USA. MacNeill, J., Cox, J. and Runnalls, D. 1989. CIDA and sustainable development. The Institute for Research on Public Policy, Halifax, NS, Canada. Ministry for the Environment, New Zealand. 1988. Draft guide for scoping and public review methods in environmental impact assessment. Ministry for the Environment, Wellington, New Zealand. Pearce, D.W. 1989. Sustainable development: an economic perspective. IIED/UCL London Environmental Economics Centre, Gatekeeper Series LEEC 89-01. International Institute for Environment and Development, London. Pearce, D.W., Markandya, A., and Barbier, E.B. 1989. Op. cit. Repetto, R., Magrath, W., Wells, M., Beer, C. and Rossini, F. 1989. Wasting assets: natural resources in the national income accounts. World Resources Institute, Washington, DC. Richardson, N. 1989. Land use planning and sustainable development in Canada. Canadian Environmental Advisory Council, Ottawa. Sagasti, F.R. 1988. National development planning in turbulent times: new approaches and criteria for institutional design. World Development 16:431-448. Tolba, M.K. 1990. Address to the 4th International Conference on Environmental Future: Surviving with the Biosphere. Budapest. UNEP, Nairobi. UNEP. 1988. Environmental impact assessment. Basic procedures for developing countries. United Nations Environment Programme. Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok. WCED. 1987. OP. cit. Chapter 9 Dourojeanni, M.J. 1989. Public policy, global change and the future. Geotimes 34(8):17-19. IUCN. Draft Covenant on Environmental Conservation and the Sustainable Use of Natural Resources. IUCN. 1991. A strategy for Antarctic Conservation. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. page 217 Notes and sources Latin American and Caribbean Commission on Development and Environment. 1990. Our Own Agenda. Inter-American Development Bank, Washington and United Nations Development Programme, New York. UNESCO. 1990. Joint Statement on the Environment. Draft final report of the feasibility study. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris. WCED. 1987. Op. cit. World Bank. 1989. Sub-Saharan Africa: from crisis to sustainable growth. The World Bank, Washington, DC. World Bank. 1989. World development report 1989. Oxford University Press, New York. Chapter 10 Goldenberg, J. 1991. A Carbon Tax to Prevent Climate Change. Ecodecision 1:1. Montreal. Holdgate, M.W., et al. 1989. Op. cit. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 1990a. Op. cit. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 1990b. Op. cit. Chapter 11 Preparation of this chapter has been assisted by the Industry and Environment Office (IEO) of the United Nations Environment Programme, the UNEP/IEO Technical Report 2 "Environmental auditing", and the UNEP Industry and Environment Review Vols. 12.1 and 12.3/4. Further contributions came from a workshop on policy, planning and institutions (Racine, Wisconsin, USA, 28 April-1 May 1990), convened by the Second World Conservation Strategy Project, organized by the Johnson Foundation, and chaired by D.A. Munro. Elkington, J. 1990. The environmental audit: a green filter for company policies, plants, processes and products. SustainAbility, London, and WWF-UK, Godalming, UK. Elkington, J. and Burke, T. 1989. The green capitalists: how to make money and protect the environment. Gollancz, London. Huisingh, D. 1988. Good environmental practices - good business practices. Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin fur Sozialforschung, Berlin. UNDP. 1989. Natural endowments: financing resource conservation for development. Report of UNDP International Conservation Financing Project (ICFP). World Resources Institute, Washington, DC. WCED. 1987. Op. cit. Chapter 12 Cochrane, G. 1983. Policies for strengthening local government in developing countries. World Bank Staff Working Papers 582, Washington, DC. Furedy, C. 1989. Appropriate technology for urban wastes in Asia. Biocycle, July 1989. Hardoy, J.E. and Satterthwaite, D. 1989. Op. cit. Holdgate, M.W., Kassas, M. and White, G.F. (Eds). 1982. The World Environment, 1972-1982. UNEP. Tycooly International, Dublin. Rondinelli, D.A., Nellis, J.R. and Cheema, S.G. 1984. Decentralization in developing countries a review of recent experiences. World Bank Staff Working Paper 581, Washington, DC. page 218 Notes and sources United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat). 1990. The Global Strategy for Shelter to the Year 2000, as adopted by United Nations General Assembly, Res. 43/181 (1988). UNHCS, Nairobi. United Nations Environment Programme and United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat). 1987. Environmental Guidelines for Settlements Planning and Management. 3 vols, UNHCS, Nairobi. WCED. 1987. Op. cit. WRI. 1988. Op. cit. Chapter 13 Alexandratos, N. (Ed.). 1988. World agriculture: toward 2000. An FAO study. Belhaven Press, London. Andres, L.A., Oatman, E.R. and Simpson, R.G. 1979. Re- examination of pest control practices. In: Davis, D.W., Hoyt, S.C., McMurtry, J.A. and AliNiazee, M.T. (Eds). 1979. Biological control and insect pest management. University of California, Division of Agricultural Sciences. Bentley, C.F. and Leskiw, L.A. 1984. Sustainability of farmed lands: current trends and thinking Canadian Environmental Advisory Council, Ottawa. Commission on Plant Genetic Resources. 1989. Assessment of the current coverage of base collections in the world, with regard to crops of interest to developing countries. CPGR/89/7. February 1989 for Third Session, Rome, April 1989. FAO, Rome. FAO Committee on Agriculture. 1989. Preservation of animal genetic resources. Tenth Session, 26 April-5 May 1989, COAG/89/6. FAO, Rome. Georghiou, G. 1989. World status of insect resistance. FAO, Rome. Grainger, A. 1990. The threatening desert: controlling desertification. Earthscan Publications, London. Hansen, S. 1988. Structural adjustment programs and sustainable development. Committee of International Development Institutions on the Environment (CIDIE), Nairobi. Hardoy, J.E., and Satterthwaite, D. 1989. Op. cit. Lutz, E., and Young, M. Agricultural policies in industrial countries and their environmental impacts: applicability to and comparisons with developing nations. Environment Working Paper 25. The World Bank, Washington, DC. McNeely, J.A. 1988. Op. cit. McNeely, J.A. Undated. Agriculture and biological diversity: international policy issues. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Norse, D. 1988. Policies for sustainable agriculture: getting the balance right. FAO, Rome. Pearce, D.W. 1991. Deforesting the Amazon: Toward an Economic Solution. Ecodecision 1.1. Montreal. Prescott-Allen, C., and Prescott-Allen, R. 1986. The first resource: wild species in the North American economy. Yale University Press, New Haven and London. Shaxson, T.F., Hudson, N.W., Sanders, D.W., Roose, E. and Moldenhauer, W.C. 1989. Land husbandry. A framework for soil and water conservation. Soil and Water Conservation Society, Ankeny, Iowa, USA. Simmonds, F.J. 1970. Biological control of pests. Tropical Science 12:191-199. Swift, J. 1989. Pastoral land tenure. In: The IUCN Sahel Studies 1989. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Nairobi. page 219 Notes and sources UNEP/IRSK. 1990. Global Assessment of Soil Degradation. UNEP/ISRK, Nairobi. van Emden, H.F. 1974. Pest control and its ecology. Institute of Biology, Studies in Biology 50. Edwin Arnold, London. WCED. 1987. Op. cit. WRI. 1988. OD. cit. Chapter 14 Alexandratos, N. (Ed.). 1988. Op. cit. Arden-Clarke, C. 1990. Conservation and sustainable management of tropical forests: the role of ITTO and GATT. WWF International, Gland, Switzerland. Clark, W.C. 1989. Managing Planet Earth. Scientific American 261 (3):19-26. Colchester, M. and Lohmann, L. 1990. The Tropical Forestry Action Plan at the crossroads. World Rain Forest Movement/The Ecologist. FAO and UNEP. 1982. Tropical forest resources. Forestry Paper 30. FAO, Rome. FAO Forestry Department. 1988. An interim report on the state of forest resources in the developing countries. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. Goodland, R., Asibey, E., Post, J. and Dyson, M. 1990. Sustainability of hardwood extraction from tropical moist forests. The World Bank, Washington, DC. Hummel, F.C., Palz, W. and Grassi, G. (Eds). 1988. Biomass forestry in Europe: a strategy for the future. Elsevier, London. Janz, K. 1990. The present state of boreal forests. FAO, Rome. Lovelock, J. 1988. The ages of Gaia: a biography of our living earth. Bantam Books, New York. Molion, L.C.B. 1989. The Amazonian forests and climatic stability. The Ecologist 19:211-213. Pearce. D.W. 1991. Op. cit., pp.40-49 and 95. Poore, D. 1989. No timber without trees. Sustainability in the tropical forest. Earthscan Publications, London. Poore, D. and Sayer, J.A. 1987. The Management of Tropical Moist Forest Lands: Ecological Guidelines. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. P.p 1-63. Postel, S. and L. Heise. 1988. Reforesting the earth. Worldwatch Paper 83, Washington, DC. Repetto, R. 1988. The forest for the trees? Government policies and the misuse of forest resources. World Resources Institute, Washington, DC. SCA Skog AB. 1987, Forestry and nature conservation: a policy statement. SCA Skog AB, Sundsvall, Sweden. Tropical Forestry Action Plan: report of the independent review 1990. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Tropical Forestry Workshop. 1990. Consensus statement on commercial forestry, sustained yield management and tropical forests. The Smithsonian Institution and International Hardwood Products Association, Alexandria, Virginia, USA. UN/ECE and FAO. 1985. The forest resources of the ECE region. UN Economic Commission for Europe, Geneva. Winterbottom, R. 1990. Taking stock: the Tropical Forestry Action Plan after five years. World Resources Institute, Washington, DC. page 220 Notes and sources WRI. 1988. Op. cit. WRI. 1990. Op. cit. WWF International. 1989. Tropical forest conservation. Position Paper 3. WWF International, Gland, Switzerland. WWF International. 1990. Reforming the Tropical Forestry Action Plan. WWF International, Gland Switzerland. Chapter 15 This chapter owes much to a workshop kindly organized by the Department of Water and Environmental Studies, Linkoping University, Linkoping, Sweden, 30 August-2 September 1990. Decamps, H., Fournier, F., Naiman, R.J. and Petersen Jr., R.C. 1990. An international research effort on land/inland water ecotones in landscape management and restoration 1990-1996. Ambio 19(3):175-176. Falkenmark, M., et al. 1987. Water-related limitations to local development. Ambio 16(4): 191-200. Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS). 1988. Assessment of freshwater quality. UNEP, Nairobi, and WHO, Geneva. McNeely, J.A. 1988. Economics and Biological Diversity: Developing and Using Economic Incentives to Conserve Biological Resources. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland; citing: MacKinnon, J.R. 1983. Irrigation and watershed protection in Indonesia. Report to the World Bank. Reid, W.V. and Miller, K.R. 1989. Keeping options alive: the scientific basis for conserving biodiversity. World Resources Institute, Washington, DC. Scudder, T. and Conelly, T. 1985. Management systems for riverine systems. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 263. Tall, R. 1990. Community-based environmental management for the promotion of water supply, health and sanitation and food production. Service International d'Appui a la Formation et aux Technologies en Afrique de l'Ouest/Sahel (AFOTEC), Dakar, Senegal. The Hinduja Foundation. 1988. Drinking water for the millions. The Hinduja Foundation, India. WCED. 1987. Op. cit. WRI. 1988. Op. cit. WRI. 1990. Op. cit. Chapter 22, Freshwater, p.170. Chapter 16 Much of this chapter was prepared during a workshop on coastal zones and oceans convened by the Second World Conservation Strategy Project and held at Dunsmuir Lodge, University of Victoria, British Columbia, Canada, 22-25 June 1990. We are greatly indebted to the participants for their contributions. FAO Committee on Fisheries. 1989. Review of the state of world fishery resources. Committee on Fisheries, 18th Session, Rome, April 1989. COFI/89/Inf.4. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. page 221 Notes and sources FAO. 1984. Report of the FAO World Conference on Fisheries Management and Development. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. FAO. 1990. FAO yearbook. Fishery statistics. Catches and landings 66 (1988). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Rome. GESAMP. 1990. Protecting and managing the oceans. Report of 20th Session, May 1990. IMO/FAO/UNESCO/WMO/WHO/IAEA/UNIUNEP Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution (GESAMP). 1990. The state of the marine environment. Reports and Studies GESAMP 39. United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi. Maclean, J.L. 1988. Thanks for using Naga. Naga, ICLARM Quarterly 11 (3):16-17. Ray, G.C. 1989. Sustainable use of the global ocean. In: Changing the Global Environment. Academic Press. Pages 71-87. Thomson, D. 1980. Conflict within the fishing industry. ICLARM Newsletter July: 3-4. United Nations. 1989. Law of the Sea. Protection and preservation of the marine environment. Report of the Secretary-General. United Nations General Assembly. Al441461, September 1989. Chapter 17 CPL Scientific Limited. 1989. Funding mechanisms for the fund for biological diversity. WWF International, Gland, Switzerland. UNDP. 1989. Natural endowments: financing resource conservation for development. World Resources Institute, Washington, DC. World Bank. 1989. World development report 1989. Oxford University Press, New York. page 222 Acknowledgements Each of the two main drafts of this text was circulated for comment to the members of IUCN - governments, government agencies and non-governmental organizations, to many among the large number of professionals who constitute IUCN's Commissions, to the networks of correspondents associated with UNEP and WWF, and to other individuals who heard of or became associated with the preparation of the Strategy during the two years preceding its completion. The responses received and the results of specialist workshops and general consultations in various regions have contributed significantly to the shape and content of this document. The contributions of individuals who took part in workshops and of those who submitted written comments are acknowledged in the list at the end of this section. Apologies are extended to anyone who has been inadvertently omitted from the list. While all this assistance contributed immensely to the breadth and authority of this document, it does not pretend to be a universal consensus. Were it so, it would not be needed. IUCN, UNEP and WWF provided core funding and through a steering committee steered the evolution of the basic themes and structure of this document. In addition to the executive heads of the three organizations, the members of the Steering Committee were Jeffrey McNeely, Reuben Olembo and Frank Schmidt. The three partners take responsibility for the document and staff members of each organization commented extensively. Within that partnership, IUCN, through its President, Director General, Project Director, Senior Consultant and senior staff, has taken the lead in preparing the text. Other members of the United Nations family and international organizations that collaborated in the preparation and review of the document were Asian Development Bank; FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; IIED International Institute for Environment and Development; ILO International Labour Office; ICHM Istituto Superiore di Santa; OAS Secretariat, Organization of American States; United Nations Centre for Human Settlements - Habitat; UNDP United Nations Development Programme; UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization; UNFPA United Nations Fund for Population Activities; The World Bank; WHO World Health Organization; WHO World Meteorological Organization; WRI World Resources Institute. Their collaboration was both helpful and inspiring. But they bear no responsibility for any errors in the text nor should it be assumed that they fully accept all the positions that it sets out. Financial support was generously provided by CIDA - Canadian International Development Agency; DANIDA - Danish International Development Assistance; FINNIDA - Finnish International Development Agency; International Centre for Ocean Development; Ministere de l'Environnement du Quebec, Ministry of Environment of Quebec; Ministero degli Affari Esteri, Direzione Generale per la Cooperazione allo Sviluppo, Italy; Netherlands Minister for Development Cooperation; NORAD - Royal Ministery of Foreign Affairs, Norway; SIDA Swedish International Development Authority; Canadian Wildlife Federation; The Johnson Foundation Inc. Those who contributed comments included the following: Abrahamsen, J., (Norway); Abrougui, M.A., (Tunisia); Abuzinada, A.H., (Saudi Arabia); Adipati, E., (Indonesia); page 223 Acknowledgements Agarwal, A., (India); Ahmad, Y.J., (Kenya); Ahujarai, P., (India); Al- Julayand, M.A.S., (Saudi Arabia); Alam, A.A.M.N., (Bangladesh); Albrecht, S., (United Kingdom); Alcantara Valero, A.F., (Spain); Alizai, S., (Pakistan); Allo, A.A., (Cameroon); Altieri, M.A., (Chile); Anderson, N.W., (USA); Andersson, I., (Sweden); Arbella, M., (Uruguay); Arden-Clarke, C., (United Kingdem); Armstrong, H., (United Kingdom); Arturo, L., (United States of America); Arze, C., (Bolivia); Ashby, K.R., (United Kingdom); Atchia, M., (Mauritius); Aubrey, D.G., (United States of America); Ayoub, A., (Sudan); Bagader, A.A., (Saudi Arabia); Baile, S., (France); Balazy, S., (Poland); Baldi, P., (United States of America); Baquedano, M., (Chile); Baquete, E.F., (Mozambique); Barbier, E., (United Kingdom); Barclay, W., (Zambia); Barrett, S., (United Kingdom); Barrett, M., (United Kingdom); Barrientos, C., (Costa Rica); Barstow, R., (United States of America); Batisse, M., (France); Bean, M., (United States of America); Beanlands, G., (Canada); Belli, R., (Italy); Bengtsson, B., (Sweden); Benneh, G., (Ghana); Berg, R.J., (United States of America); Bergmans, W., (Netherlands); Berkes, F., (Canada); Berry, R.J., (United Kingdom); Besong, J.B., (Cameroon); Bessarab, R., (Australia); Biswas, D.K., (India); Bjorklund, M., (Sweden); Blockhus, J., (United States of America); Boer, B.W., (Australia); Bolshova, L.I., (USSR); Borgese, E.M., (Canada); Borrell, S.M., (Spain); Borrini, G., (Italy); Bortnyk, G., (United States of America); Boskova, S., (Czech and Slovak Federative Republic); Botero, L.S., (Italy); Botnariuc, N., (Romania); Bottrall, A., (India); Brackett, D., (Canada); Branton, I., (United Kingdom); Braun, J., (Poland); Brooks, D.B., (Canada); Bruce, J.P., (Canada); Buonguti, A., (Italy); Burgers, C.J., (South Africa); Burgess, J., (United Kingdom); BurhenneGuilmin, F., (Belgium); Burns, C.W., (New Zealand); Butylina, T.P., (USSR); Borlin, M., (Switzerland); Caccia, C., (Canada); Cade, A., (United Kingdom); Calvo, S., (Spain); Camino, A., (Peru); Campbell, D., (United Kingdom); Cardenes, J.J., (Colombia); Carpenter, R.A., (United States of America); Castelow, R.A., (Australia); Castensson, R., (Sweden); Cecil, C., (United States of America); Cederwall, K., (Sweden); Cellarius, R.A., (United States of America); Cernea, M.M., (United States of America); Challinor, D., (United States of America); Chaniago, D., (Indonesia); Child, G., (Zimbabwe); Chitrakar, A., (Nepal); Chittleborough, D., (Australia); Christoffersen, L.E., (United States of America); Claparols, A.M., (Philippines); Clark, J., (United Kingdom); Clarke, W.J., (Fiji); Cokelberghs, J.-P., (Belgium); Connolly, M., (United States of America); Connor- Lajambe, H., (Canada); Cortez, J., (Bolivia); Coulmin, P., (France); Cox, G.W., (United States of America); Croal, P., (Canada); Cull, D.A.N., (Canada); Cutler, M.R., (United States of America); Da Cunha, L.V., (Portugal); Dahl, A., (United States of America); Dahlberg, K.A., (United States of America); Daly, H.E., (United States of America); Dankelman, I., (Netherlands); Datschefski, E., (United Kingdom); Davidson, J., (United Kingdom); De Azcarate y Bang, T., (Spain); De Barros Filho, N., (Brazil); De Benavides, N.H., (Ecuador); De Caires Vilanova, A., (Portugal); De Groot, R., (Netherlands); De Larderel, A., (France); De Lozada, A.S., (Bolivia); De Morales, C.B., (Bolivia); De Oliveira Costa, J.P., (Brazil); De Silva, A.L.M., (United States of America); De Silva, L., (Sri Lanka); Debele, B., (Ethiopia); Delacroix, P., (France); Delahunt, A.-M., (Australia); Dennis, F., (United Kingdom); Dennis, E., (United Kingdom); Di Melilli, A.C., (Italy); Di Vecchia, A., (Italy); DiSano, J., (Australia); Doboekar, V., (India); Doronina, O.D., (USSR); Doumenge, F., (Monaco); Drake, S., (United States of America); Dribidu, E., (Uganda); Driver, P., (United Kingdom); Dugan, P., (United Kingdom); Dunster, J.A., (Canada); Duran, G.G., (Colombia); Dutt, P.S., (India); Duville, V., (Martinique); Edinburgh, H.R.H. The Duke of, (United Kingdom); Edwards, M.H., (Canada); Edwards, S., (United States of America); Egloff, R., (Switzerland); Elder, D., (United States of America); El-Sabbagh, A.T., (Saudi Arabia); Engel, J.R., (United States of America); page 224 Acknowledgements Enthoven, C., (Netherlands); Erize, F., (Argentina); Escalona, A.I., (Spain); Escobar, E.M., (Colombia); Espinosa, D.A., (Ecuador); Evteev, S. (USSR); Faizi, S., (Denmark); Falkenmark, M., (Sweden); Fauchon, J., (France); Fearnside, P.M., (Brasil); Fernandez, S., (Chile); Fernando, V. (Sri Lanka); Ferrando, E., (Peru); Fitter, R., (United Kingdom); Flint, V., (USSR); Forno, E., (Bolivia); Forster, M., (Australia); Forster, M., (United Kingdom); Freire da Silva, R., (Brazil); Friedman, Y., (France); Frisen, R., (Sweden); Fry, A.E., (Switzerland); Fuller, S., (Canada); Furtado, J.I.D.R., (United Kingdom); Futehally, Z., (India); Gallopin, G.C., (Argentina); Gammell, A., (United Kingdom); Garratt, K., (New Zealand); Gatahi, M.M., (Kenya); Gawn, M., (Canada); Gebremeddin, N., (Ethiopia); Geesteranus, C.M., (Netherlands); Gerber, S.A., (South Africa); Geyger, E., (Bolivia); Gil Mona, E., (Peru); Gligo, N., (Chile); Godrey, S.P., (India); Golovnin, A.N., (USSR); Gomez, E.D., (Philippines); Gordina, F.Y., (USSR); Gordon, I., (United Kingdom); Gorin, D.A., (USSR); Goulet, D., (Poland); Greene, G., (Canada); Greenwalt, L., (United States of America); Greuter, W., (Germany); Gucovsky, M., (United States of America); Gudynas, E., (Uruguay); Gwynn, M., (United Kingdom); Gyulai, I., (Hungary); Hall, D.O., (United Kingdom); Hamilton, L.S., (United States of America); HannanAndersson, C., (Sweden); Haq, K., (United States of America); Hardoy, J.E., (Argentina); Harrison, P., (United Kingdom); Hatley, J., (United Kingdom); Hawari, M., (Germany); Hedstrom, I., (Costa Rica); Helms, H.J., (Denmark); Herring, R.J., (Canada); Hesselink, F.J., (Netherlands); Heywood, V., (United Kingdom); Hiroshi, Y., (France); Hiraishi, T., Japan); Hollis, G.E., (United Kingdom); Holowesko, L.P., (Bahamas); Holt, S., (United Kingdom); Hopkins, E., (United Kingdom); Howard, B., (United States of America); Htun, N., (Myanmar); Huismans, J.W., (Netherlands); Hussain, A., (Pakistan); Iliasu, S., (Nigeria); Imbach, A., (Argentina); Illueca, J.C., (Panama); Irvin, R., (United States of America); Ishio, T., (France); Jacobs, P., (Canada); Jagannath, E.V., (India); Jakob-Hoff, R., (New Zealand); Jakowska, S., (Dominican Republic); Jan, A.U., (Pakistan); Janssen, M.P.M., (Netherlands); Jayal, N.D., (India); Johannes, R.E., (Australia); Johnson, J., (Germany); Juchnowicz, S., (Poland); Judge, A.J., (Belgium); Kakabadse, Y., (Ecuador); Kanygin, E., (USSR); Kapusta, M., (Czech and Slovak Federative Republic); Karmouni, A., (Morocco); Katko, T., (Finland); Keckes, S., (Yugoslavia); Kelleher, G., (Australia); Kenyon, G., (Canada); Khan, S.S., (Pakistan); Khanna, P., (India); Khosla, A., (India); Kim Ock-Kyung, (Rep. of Korea); Kismadi, M.S., (Indonesia); Knight, I., (United Kingdom); Koeyers Sr, J.E., (Australia); Kokine, M., (USSR); Korten, D.C., (United States of America); Krasilov, V.A., (USSR); Kriz-Randranarisoa, O., (Switzerland); Krueger, F.W., (United States of America); Lamb, J., (United States of America); Lamb, R., (United Kingdom); Lampe, K., (Philippines); Lapointe, E., (Canada); de Larderel, J.-A., (France); Larson, S., (United States of America); Lausche, B.J., (United States of America); Leake, W.D., (United States of America); Leal Filho, W.D.S., (Germany); Lee, M.J., (Korea); Lee, S.W., (Taiwan); Lefeuvre, J.-C., (France); Lenton, R., (Sri Lanka); Letizia, G., (Italy); Letts, G., (Australia); LieberherrGardiol, F., (Switzerland); Lightfoot, C., (Philippines); Linet, C., (Belgium); Litvinov, N.N., (USSR); Llewellyn, O.A.A.R., (Saudi Arabia); Lloyd, B., (Fiji); Long, T., (Belgium); Longobardi, F., (Italy); Lord Ross of Newport (United Kingdom); Loriaux, M., (Belgium); Lothian, A., (Australia); Lubbers, H., (Netherlands); Lucas, P.H.C., (New Zealand); Lundqvist, J., (Sweden); Luti, R., (Argentina); Lyonette, K., (United Kingdom); Machado, A., (Spain); Maddum Bandara, C.M., (Sri Lanka); Madueno, J.M.M., (Spain); Maler, K.G., (United States of America); Maltby, E., (United Kingdom); Mancama, B.V., page 225 Acknowledgements (Zimbabwe); Marconi, M., (Bolivia); Markandya, A., (United Kingdom); Markham, A., (United Kingdom); Marquez G. (Colombi); Marstrand, P., (United Kingdom); Martin-Brown, J., (United States of America); Mascarenhas, J.P., (Seychelles); Mason, L., (United States of America); Mathews, F., (Australia); Matte-Baker, A., (Chile); McAllister, D.E., (Canada); McEachern, J., (United States of America); McIntyre, A.D., (United Kingdom); McNeely, J., (United States of America); Martin, Claude, (Switzerland); Medawar, J., (United Kingdom); Medford, D., (Zimbabwe); Mercado, R., (Bolivia); Merkle, A., (Germany); Mhlanga, L., (Zimbabwe); Mileva, M., (Bulgaria); Miller, K.R., (United States of America); Misley, K., (Hungary); Missoni, E., (Italy); Moles, J.A., (United States of America); Morello, J., (Argentina); Morey, M., (Spain); Morgan, V.H., (Costa Rica); Morillo, C., (Spain); Morishima, A., (Japan); Morris, D., (United Kingdom); Mumtaz, K., (Pakistan); Munasinghe, M., (United States of America); Munro, R.D., (Canada); Myers, D., (United Kingdom); Nachay, G., (Hungary); Nasseef, A.B.O., (Saudi Arabia); Navarro, J.C., (Panama); Nerfin, M., (Switzerland); Neronov, V.M., (USSR); Ngari, P., (Kenya); Nicholson, E.M., (United Kingdom); Nijhoff, P., (Netherlands); Nikolsky, A.A., (USSR); Nishimura, T., Japan); Noton, C., (Chile); O'Riordan, T., (United Kingdom); Ofosu-Amaah, W., (United States of America); Oldham, J., (United Kingdom); Olembo, R., (Kenya); Olokesusi, F., (Nigeria); Opschoor, H., (Netherlands); Ortiz, O., (Chile); Ouedraogo, D., (Mali); Ovington, J.D., (Australia); Oza, G.M., (India); Painter, M., (United States of America); Pannocchia, M.C., (Netherlands); Panwar, H.S., (India); Paparian, M., (United States of America); Partha Sarathy, M.A., (India); Pearce, D., (United Kingdom); Pearse, P.H., (Canada); Pellew, R., (United Kingdom); Penfold, M., (United States of America); Pepper, S., (United Kingdom); Perez-Borrego, V.P., (Spain); Perrings, C., (Botswana); Petersen, R.C., (Sweden); Peterson, R.M., (United States of America); Phillips, A., (United Kingdom); Piddington, K.W., (New Zealand); Pieters, J.B., (Netherlands); Piret, E., (Belgium); Pirot, J.- Y., (France); Pitt, David, (New Zealand); Pellew, R., (United Kingdom); Pletscher, D.H., (United States of America); Polunin, N., (Switzerland); Poore, D., (United Kingdom); Potts, M., (United States of America); Potts, M., (United Kingdom); Pretes, M., (Finland); Priscoli, J.D., (United States of America); Pullin, R.S.V., (UK); Quesada, C., (Costa Rica); Qutub, S.A., (Pakistan); Rabb, G.B., (United States of America); Raga, M.N., (Papua New Guinea); Raghunathan, M., (India); Rajotte, F., (Switzerland); Rakosi, J., (Hungary); Rao, K., (India); Rao, S., (United States of America); Ray, C., (United States of America); Redclift, M., (United Kingdom); Robertson, J., (France); Robinson, N., (United States of America); Robinson, S., (United Kingdom); Robinson, N.A., (United Kingdom); Roch, P., (Switzerland); Rodda, J.C., (Switzerland); Rooda, F.E.E., (Netherlands); Roth, E., (Bolivia); Royston, M.G., (Switzerland); Rozanov, B., (USSR); Runnals, D., (Canada); Ryden, P., (Sweden); Safronov, S., (Switzerland); Sadik, N., (Pakistan); Sampson, R.N., (United States of America); Samways, M., (South Africa); Sanchez- Parga, J., (Ecuador); Sandbrook, R., (United Kingdom); Sankaran, J., (India); Sarabhai, K., (India); Satterthwaite, D., (United Kingdom); Saunier, R., (United States of America); Sayer, J., (United Kingdom); Schadilov, Y.M., (USSR); Schroeder, P., (Netherlands); Schueler, E., (United States of America); Schultze, D., (Sweden); Segnestam, M., (Sweden); Segovia Espiau, C., (Spain); Seiler, H., (Switzerland); Seng, G.K., (Thailand); Sequeira, D., (Finland); Shapiro, H.A., Japan); Sharma, I.K., (India); Sharp, T., (Thailand); Shaw, R.P., (Canada); Shenoy, B.V., (India); Shepherd, G., (United Kingdom); Sherman, K., (United States of America); Sigdyal, K.P., (Nepal); Simon, M., (Canada); Simon, A., (Colombia); Skinner, R.G., (France); Slocombe, S.D., (Canada); Slooff, R., (Switzerland); Smith, T.M., (United States of America); Smyth, J.C., (United Kingdom); page 226 Acknowledgements Snidvongs, K., (Thailand); Sommi, M., (Italy); Soutter, R., (South Africa); Spiridonov, G., (Bulgaria); Stahl, M., (Sweden); Stahr, E., (United States of America); Stawicki, H., (Poland); Stein, A., (Argentina); Stuart, S., (United Kingdom); Sullivan, C., (United States of America); Swaminathan, M.S., (India); Tall, R., (Senegal); Tamrakar, K., (Nepal); Tarlo, K., (Australia); Thacher, P.S., (United States of America); Thiadens, R., (Switzerland); Thorsell, J., (Canada); Timberlake, L., (United Kingdom); Tisdell, C., (Australia); Toniuc, N., (Romania); Torell, M., (Sweden); Torres, H., (Chile); Torres, E.B., (Philippines); Trzyna, T.C., (United States of America); Turner, R.K., (United Kingdom); Ural, E., (Turkey); Urbaez, R., (Dominican Republic); Urban, F., (Czech and Slovak Federative Republic); Vadineanu, A., (Romania); Van den Oever, N., (Netherlands); Van Noordwijk-van Veen, J.C., (Netherlands); Van der Zwiep, K., (Netherlands); Vanicek, V.L., (Czech and Slovak Federative Republic); Variava, D., (India); Veit, P., (United States of America); Vermeer, E., (Netherlands); Vernon, G.C., (Canada); Viederman, S., (United States of America); Visscher, T., (Netherlands); Vittery, B.W., (United Kingdom); Vlachos, E., (United States of America); Waldichuk, M., (Canada); Waller, H., (Australia); Waiyaki, B., (Kenya); Wallman, P., (Australia); Watanabe, T., (Malaysia); Wells, M.P., (United States of America); Winpenny, J., (United Kingdom); Westing, A.H., (United States of America); Wetherup, D., (Canada); Whitaker, N., (United States of America); Whitby, L., (Canada); Widstrand, C., (Sweden); Wilkes, B., (Canada); Williamson, L., (Australia); Wilson, G.R., (Australia); Woodley, S., (Australia); Woolaston, P., (New Zealand); Wooster, W., (United States of America); Wray, P., (United States of America); Yagil, R., (Israel); Yurjevic, A., (Chile); Zakonyi, J., (Hungary); Zeballo, H., (Mexico); Zedan, H., (Egypt); Zehni, M.S., (Italy); Zentilli, B., (Chile); Zylicz, T., (Poland). The text paper, recycled SylvanCoat 80 gm2, is 45% woodfree unprinted waste and 45% woodfree printed waste. Paper is deinked without bleach. The mill says its advanced treatment system ensures no harmful discharges result from manufacture. page 227 The logo for Caring for the Earth is based on the symbol used for the first World Conservation Strategy. The circle symbolizes the biosphere - the thin covering of the planet that contains and sustains life. The three interlocking, overlapping arrows symbolize the three objectives of conservation: - maintenance of essential ecological processes and life-support systems; - preservation of genetic diversity - sustainable utilizaion of species and ecosystems Copyright 1986 WWF Symbol copyright, WWF Registered Trademark owner Copyright l99l International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources/ United Nations Environment Programme/WWF- World Wide Fund For Nature. Reproduction of this publication for educational and other non- commercial purposes is authorized without prior permission from the copyright holders. Reproduction for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without the prior written permission of the copyright holders. Printed by SADAG, Bellegarde-Valserine, France (original Earthscan Edition). ------------------------------------------------------------------- This electronic version of Caring for the Earth produced from the orginal Earthscan Edition by the Puget Sound Chapter of the Society for Conservation Biology. Care has been taken to preserve the original, and any inaccuracies not found in the original are the responsibility of the PSC-SCB. Special thanks to Shari Baker for proofreading the electronic text. If you have questions about this document, please contact: Preston Hardison (pdh@u.washington.edu) for information. .